Nonrestrictive expressions

APOSTROPHES

Apostrophes show possession, mark contractions, and indicate plurals that are singled out for special attention.

Possession

Possessive apostrophes usually show ownership (Mary’s cat). Sometimes, though, they identify the works of creative people (Hemingway’s novels) or indicate an extent of time or distance (one hour’s time, one mile’s distance). Possessive apostrophes are used with nouns and with pronouns like someone, no one, everybody, each other, and one another.

The possessive form is easily recognized because it can be converted to a prepositional phrase beginning with of: The collar of the dog. The intention of the corporation. To show possession with such pronouns, singular nouns, and plural nouns that do not end in an s, add an apostrophe followed by an s: Someone’s car is blocking our drive. (possessive of pronoun someone). The women’s lounge is being redecorated (possessive of plural noun women).

With singular nouns that end in s, the possessive is sometimes formed by merely adding an apostrophe at the end (James’ helmet). The preferred usage, however, is ‘s (James’s helmet) unless the addition of the s would make it awkward to pronounce the word.

Moses’s followers entered the Promised Land (awkward pronunciation of Moses’s).

Moses’ followers entered the Promised Land (nonawkward pronunciation of Moses’)

Plural nouns ending in s form the possessive by adding only an apostrophe at the end: All the ladies’ coats are on sale today (possessive of plural noun ladies).

To show joint ownership by two or more persons, use the possessive form for the last-named person only. To show individual ownership, use the possessive form for each person’s name.

Ronald and Joan’s boat badly needed overhauling. (joint ownership)

Laura’s and Alice’s term projects ate almost completed. (individual ownership)

Hyphenated nouns form the possessive by adding ‘s to the last word: My mother-in-law’s house is next to mine.

Never use an apostrophe with the possessive pronouns his, hers, whose, its, ours, yours, theirs.

The desk is his; the other one is hers.

Contractions

Contractions of words or numbers omit one or more letters or numerals. An apostrophe shows exactly where the omission occurs.

Wasn’t that a disappointing concert? (contraction of was not)

Around here, people still talk about the blizzard of ’79. (contraction of 1979)

Don’t confuse the contraction it’s meaning it is or it has, with the possessive pronoun its, which should never have an apostrophe: e.g. It’s awfully muggy today. It’s been an exciting trip. Every dog has its day.

Plurals

To improve clarity, the plurals of letters, numbers, symbols, and words being singled out for special attention are written with apostrophes.

Mind your p’s and q’s. (plurals of letters)

Your 5’s and 6’s are hard to tell apart. (plurals of numbers)

The formula was sprinkled with ∏’s and ∑’s. (plurals of symbols)

Don’t use so many however’s and therefore’s in your writing. (plurals of words)

Apostrophes are often used to form the plurals of abbreviations.

How many rpm’s does this shift turn at? (plural abbreviation for revolutions per minute)

When no danger of confusion exists, an s alone will suffice.

During the late 1990s, many university students demanded changes in academic life.

COMMAS

Commas separate or set off independent clauses, items in a series, coordinate adjectives, introductory elements, places and dates, nonrestrictive expressions, and parenthetical expressions.

Independent clauses

When you link two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, or so), put a comma in front of the conjunction.

Arthur is majoring in engineering, but he has decided to work for a clothing store following graduation. The water looked inviting, so Darlene decided to go for a swim.

Don’t confuse a sentence that has a compound predicate with a sentence that consists of two independent clauses.

Tom watered the garden and mowed the lawn. (single sentence with compound predicate)

Tom watered the garden, and Betty mowed the lawn. (sentence with two independent clauses)

Items in a series

A series consists of three or more words, phrases, or clauses followed on one another’s heels. Whenever you write a series, separate its items with commas.

Sarah, Paul, and Mary are earning A’s in advanced algebra. (words in a series)

Nancy strode across the parking lot, through the revolving door, and into the elevator. (phrases in a series)

The stockholders’ report said that the company had enjoyed record profits during the last year, that it had expanded its work force by 20 percent, and that it would soon start marketing several new products. (clauses in a series)

Coordinate adjectives

Use commas to separate coordinate adjectives – those that modify the same noun or noun substitute and can be reversed without altering the meaning of the sentence.

Andrea proved to be an efficient, cooperative employee.

Andrea proved to be a cooperative, efficient employee.

When reversing the word order wrecks the meaning of the sentence, the adjectives are not coordinate and should be written without a comma.

Many new brands of video recorders have come on the market lately.

Reversing the adjectives many and new would turn the sentence into nonsense. Therefore, no comma should be used.

Introductory elements

Use commas to separate introductory elements – words, phrases, and clauses – from the rest of the sentence. When an introductory element is short and the sentence will not be misread, you can omit the comma.

After bathing, Jack felt refreshed. (the example needs a comma; otherwise, the reader might become temporarily confused)

Soon I will be changing jobs.// Soon, I will be changing jobs.

When Sarah smiles, her ears wiggle.// When Sarah smiles her ears wiggle.

Always use commas after introductory elements of six or more words.

Whenever I hear the opening measure of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, I get goose bumps.

Places and dates

Places include mailing addresses and geographical locations. The following sentences show where commas are used:

Sherry Delaney lives at 651 Daniel Street, Memphis, Tennessee 38118.

I shall go to Calais, France, next week.

Morristown, Oklahoma, is my birthplace.

Note that commas appear after the street designation and the names of cities, countries, and states, except when the name of the state is followed by a zip code.

Dates are punctuated as shown in the following example:

On Sunday, June 9, 2013, Elaine received a degree in environmental science.

Here, commas follow the day of the week, the day of the month, and the year.

With dates that include only the month and the year, commas are optional.

In July 2014 James played chess for the first time.// In July, 2014, James played chess for the first time.

Nonrestrictive expressions

A nonrestrictive expression supplies added information about whatever it modifies. This information, however, is nonessential and does not affect the basic meaning of the sentence.

Senator Conwell, the senior senator from this state, faces a tough campaign for re-election.

My dog, frightened by the thunder, hid under my bed while the storm raged.

If we delete the phrase the senior senator from this state from the first sentence, we still know that Senator Conwell faces a tough re-election battle. Likewise, if we delete frightened by the thunder from the second sentence, we still know that the dog hid during the storm.

Restrictive expressions, which are written without commas, distinguish whatever they modify from other persons, places, or things in the same category. Unlike nonrestrictive expressions, they are almost always essential sentence elements. Omitting a restrictive expression alters the meaning of the sentence, and the result is often nonsense.

Any person caught stealing from this store will be prosecuted.

Dropping the italicized part of this sentence leaves us with the absurd statement that any person, not just those caught stealing, faces prosecution.

Parenthetical expressions

A parenthetical expression is a word or a word group that links one sentence to another or adds information or emphasis to the sentence in which it appears, e.g. All of Joe’s spare time seems to center around reading. Kevin, on the other hand, enjoys a variety of activities. (phrase linking two sentences together)

Parenthetical expressions include the following:

Clarifying phrases: Myra Hobbes, our representative in Seattle, is being transferred to Spokane next month.

Names and titles of people being addressed directly: I think, Jill, that you’d make a wonderful teacher. Tell me, Captain, when the cruise ship is scheduled to sail.

Abbreviations of degree titles: Harley Kendall, Ph.D., will be this year’s commencement speaker. (degree title following name)

Echo questions: Alvin realizes, doesn’t he, that he stands almost no chance of being accepted at West Point?

Adjectives that come after, rather than before, the words they modify: The road, muddy and rutted, proved impassable. (adjectives following word they modify)

SEMOCOLONS

The main use of the semicolon (;) is to separate independent clauses, which may or may not be connected with a conjunctive adverb: e.g. The fabric in this dress is terrible; its designer must have been asleep at the swatch. (no conjunctive adverb) Steve refused to write a term paper; therefore, he failed the course. (conjunctive adverb therefore joining independent clauses)

Conjunctive adverbs can occur within, rather than between, independent clauses. When they do, set them off with commas: e.g. Marsha felt very confident. Jane, on the other hand, was nervous and uncertain. (conjunctive adverb within independent clause)

Other uses include separating:

Two or more series of items. With sentences that have two or more series of items, writers often separate the series with semicolons in order to lessen the chances of misreading: My duties as secretary include typing letters, memos, and purchase orders; sorting, opening, and delivering mail; and making plane and hotel reservations for travelling executives. (The semicolons provide greater clarity than commas would.)

Comma-containing items within a series. When commas accompany one or more of the items in a series, it’s often better to separate the items with semicolons instead of commas: The meal included veal, which was cooked to perfection; asparagus, my favourite vegetable; and brown rice, prepared with a touch of curry. (Once again, semicolons provide greater clarity than additional commas.)

Independent clauses with commas and a coordinating conjunction. Ordinarily, a comma is used to separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. When one or more of the clauses have commas, however, a semicolon provided clearer separation: The long, black limousine pulled up to the curb; and Jerry, shaking with excitement, watched the President alight from it. (The semicolon makes it easier to see the two main clauses.)

Periods

Periods end sentences that state facts or opinions, give instructions, make requests that are not in the form of questions, and ask indirect questions – those that have been rephrased in the form of statement.

Linda works as a hotel manager. (sentence states fact)

Dean Harris is a competent administrator. (sentence states opinion)

Clean off your lab bench before you leave. (sentence gives instruction)

Please move away from the door. (sentence makes request)

I wonder whether Ruthie will be at the theatre tonight. (sentence asks indirect question)

Periods also follow common abbreviations as well as a person\s initials: Mr., Sr., A.D., Dr., Corp..

Mark Valentini Jr. has consented to head the new commission on traffic safety.

Writers today often omit periods after abbreviations for the names of organizations or government agencies, as the following examples show: ABC, GM, NAM, IRS.

An up-to-date college dictionary will indicate whether a certain abbreviation should be written without periods.

Question marks

A question mark ends a whole or a partial sentence that asks a direct question.

Do you know how to operate this movie projector? (whole sentence asking a direct question)

Has Cinderella scrubbed the floor? Swept the hearth? Washed the dishes? (sentence and sentence parts asking direct questions)

Dr. Baker- wasn’t she your boss once? – has just received a promotion to sales manager. (interrupting element asking a direct question)

The minister inquired, “Don’t you take this woman to be your lawful wedded wife?” (quotation asking a direct question)

A question mark in parentheses may be used to indicate uncertainty about some piece of information: Winfield reached America in 1721 (?) and spent the rest of his life in Philadelphia.

Exclamation points

Exclamation points are used to express strong emotion or especially forceful commands.

Darcy! I never expected to see you again!

Sam! Turn that music down immediately!

Use exclamation points sparingly; otherwise, they will quickly lose their force.

Colons

Colons introduce explanations and anticipated lists following words that could stand alone as a complete sentence.

His aim in life is tremendous: to corner the market in wheat. (explanation)

Three students have been selected to attend the conference: Lucille Perkins, Dan Blakely, and Frank Napolis. (list)

Three factors can cause financial problems for farmers: (1) high interest rates, (2) falling land values, and (3) a strong dollar, which makes it difficult to sell crops abroad. (numbered list)

Colons also frequently introduce formal quotations that extend beyond a single sentence.

The speaker stepped to the lectern and said: “I am here to ask for your assistance. Today several African nations face a food crisis because drought has ruined their harvests. Unless we provide help quickly, thousands of people will die of starvation.”

In such situations, the material preceding the quotation need not be a complete sentence.

Colons also separate hours from minutes (8:20 A.M.), salutations of business letters from the body of the letters (Dear Ms. Stanley:), titles of publications from subtitles (The Careful Writer: A Guide to English Usage), numbers indication ratios (a 3:2:2 ratio), and chapter from verse in biblical references (Luke 6:20-49).

Dashes

Like colons, dashes set off appositives, lists, and explanations but are used in less formal writing. A dash emphasizes the material it sets off.

Only one candidate showed up at the political rally--Jerry Manders. (appositive)

The closet held only three garments--an out-at-the-elbows sportscoat, a pair of blue jeans, and a tattered shirt. (list)

I know what little Billy’s problem is--a soiled diaper. (explanation)

Dashes set off material that interrupts the flow of thoughts within a sentence.

Her new car--didn’t she get it just three months ago?--has broken down twice.

Similarly, dashes are used to mark an interrupted segment of dialogue.

“I’d like to live in England when I retire.”

“In England? But what will your wife--?”

“My wife likes the idea and can hardly wait for us to make the move.”

Dashes set off parenthetical elements containing commas, and a dash can set off comments that follow a list.

The comedian--short, fat, and squeaky-voiced--soon had everyone roaring with laughter. (parenthetical element with commas)

A brag, a blow, a tank of air--that’s what Senator Conwell is. (comment following a list)

Type a dash as two spaced hyphens and leave no space between it and the words on either side of it.

Parentheses

Parentheses are used to enclose numbers or letters that designate the items in a formal list and to set off incidental material within sentences. Except in the kind of list shown in the first example below, a comma does not usually precede a parenthesis.

Each paper should contain (1) and introduction, (2) several paragraphs developing the thesis statement, and (3) a conclusion.

Some occupations (computer programming, for example) may be overcrowded in ten years.

If the material in parentheses appears within a sentence, don’t use a capital letter or period, even if the material is itself a complete sentence.

The use of industrial robots (one cannot foresee their consequences) worries some people today.

If the material in parentheses is written as a separate sentence, however, then punctuate it as you would a separate sentence.

Paula’s angry outburst surprised everyone. (She had seemed such a placid person.)

If the material in parentheses comes at the end of a sentence, put the final punctuation after the closing parenthesis.

This company was founded by Willard Manley (1876-1951).

In contrast to dashes, parentheses de-emphasize the material they enclose.

Brackets

In quoted brackets [] enclose words or phrases that have been added to make the message clearer. They are also used with the word sic (Latin for ‘thus’) to point out errors in quoted material.

“This particular company [Zorn Enterprises, Inc.] pioneered in the safe disposal of toxic wastes,” the report noted. (the bracketed name is added to the original)

“[Carl Sagan’s] expertise in science has made him a popular figure on the lecture circuit,” his friend stated. (the bracketed name replaces his in the original)

“The principle [sic] cause of lung cancer is cigarette smoking,” the article declared. (the word principal is misspelled ‘principle’ in the original)

To call attention to an error, follow it immediately with the bracketed sic. The reader will then know that the blame rests with the original writer, not with you.

QUOTATION MARKS

Quotation marks set off direct quotations, titles of short written or broadcast works, subdivisions of books, and expressions singled out for special attention.

Direct quotations

A direct quotation repeats a speaker’s or writer’s exact words.

“Tell me about the movie,” said Debbie. “If you liked it, I may go myself.”

The placement director said, “The recruiter for Procter and Gamble will be on campus next Thursday to interview students for marketing jobs.”(spoken comment)

“The U.S. trade deficit is expected to reach record levels this year,” The Wall Street Journal noted. (written comment)

Jackie said the party was “a total flop.”

As these sentences show, a comma or period that follows a direct quotation goes inside the quotation marks. When a quotation is a sentence fragment, the comma preceding it is omitted.

When an expression like ‘he said’ interrupts a quoted sentence, use commas to set off the expression. When the expression comes between two complete quoted sentences, use a period after the expression and capitalize the first word of the second sentence.

“Hop in,” said Jim. “Let me give you a ride to school.”

“Thank you,” replied Kelly, opening the car door and sliding into the front seat.

“I can’t remember,” said Jim, “when we’ve had a worse winter.”

HYPHENS

Hyphens are used to join compound adjectives and nouns, compound numbers and word-number combinations, and certain prefixes and suffixes to the words with which they appear. In addition, hyphens help prevent misreading and awkward combinations of letters or syllables and are used to split words between two lines.

Prefixes and suffixes

Although most prefixes are not hyphenated, the prefixes self- and all- do get hyphens, as does the suffix –elect. Also the prefix ex- is hyphenated when it accompanies a noun.

This stove has a self-cleaning oven.

Let Claire Voyant, the all-knowing soothsayer, read your future in her crystal ball.

Ethel is the chairperson-elect of the club.

Several ex-teachers work in this department.

A prefix before a capitalized term is always hyphenated.

The ex-FBI agent gave an interesting talk on the operations of that agency.

Between syllables

Whenever you have to split a word between two lines, place a hyphen at the end of the first line to show the division. The word is always broken, and the hyphen inserted, between syllables. (Any good dictionary shows the syllable divisions of each word it includes.) Never divide a one-syllable word or leave two letters to be placed on the second line, even if those two letters constitute a syllable.

CAPITALIZATION

Proper nouns

A proper noun names one particular person, group of persons, place, or thing. Such nouns include the following:

Persons

Organizations

Racial, political, and religious groups

Countries, states, cities, and streets

Companies and buildings

Geographical locations and features

Days, months, and holidays

Trademarks

Languages

Ships and aircrafts

Abbreviations for academic degrees

Titles used in place of names

e.g. Sigmund works for the National Psychoanalytical Institute, an organization that has done much to advance the science of psychiatry.

Gwen Greene moved to Paris , France, when her father became the consul there.

Larry has a master of art degree, and his sister has a Ph.D.

My father works for the Ford Motor Company, but I work for Chrysler.

Do not capitalize words like institute, college, company, or avenue unless they form part of a proper name. Likewise, do not capitalize the names of courses unless they start a sentence, are accompanied by a course number, or designate a language.

I have a 95 average in Economics 112 but only a 73 average in sociology.

Harry plans to take intermediate German in his junior year.

Do you plan to attend Drew College or some other college?

Proper adjectives

Proper adjectives should be capitalized.

Lolita Martinez, our class valedictorian, is of Mexican ancestry. (Mexican is derived from the proper noun Mexico.)

Abbreviations

Capitalize abbreviations only if the words they stand for are capitalized.

Milton DeWitt works for the IRS. (IRS is capitalized because ‘Internal Revenue Service’ would ne.)

The flask holds 1,500 cc of liquid. (the abbreviation cc is not capitalized because ‘cubic centimeters’ would not be)

A few abbreviations are capitalized even though all or some of the words they stand for aren’t. (TV, VR).

Personal titles

Capitalize a personal title if it precedes a name or is used in place of a name. Otherwise, do not capitalize.

The division is under the command of General Arnold Schafer.

Tell me, Doctor, do I need an operation?

The dean of our Engineering Division is Dr. Alma Haskins.

Many writers capitalize titles of high rank when they are used in place of names.

The President will sign this bill tomorrow.

The president will sign this bill tomorrow.

Either usage is acceptable.

ABBREVIATIONS

Personal titles

Abbreviate Mister, Doctor, and similar titles when they come just ahead of a name, and Junior, Senior, and degree titles when they follow names.

Will Mr. Harry Babbitt please come to the front desk?

Arthur Compton Sr. is a well-known historian; his son, Arthur Compton, Jr., is a television producer.

Latin terms

Certain Latin terms are always abbreviated; others are abbreviated when used with dates or times.

e.g. (exempli gratia: for example)

i.e (id est: that is)

etc. (et cetera: and others)

vs. or v. (versus : against)

A.D. (anno Domini: in the year of our Lord)

A.M. or a.m. (ante meridiem: before noon)

NUMBERS

Some instructors ask their students to use figures for numbers larger than ninety-nine and to spell out smaller numbers.

Boise is 100 miles from here. // Boise is ninety-nine miles from here.

Other instructors prefer that students switch to figures beginning with the number ten.

My son will be nine years old on his next birthday. // My son will be 10 years old on his next birthday.

With either practice, the following exceptions apply.

Numbers in a series

Write all numbers in a series the same way regardless of their size.

Gatsby has 64 suits, 110 shirts, and 214 ties.

In just one hour the emergency room personnel handled two stabbings, five shootings, and sixteen fractures.

We have 150 salespeople, 51 engineers, and 7 laboratory technicians.

Dates

Use figures for dates that include the year.

February 14, 2014 (not February 14^th, 2014)

When the date includes the day but not the year, you may use figures or spell out the number.

June 9// June ninth// the ninth of June

Page numbers and addresses

Use figures for page numbers and street numbers in addresses.

Check the graph on page 415.

I live at 111 Cornelia Street, and my office is at 620 Fifth Avenue.

Numbers beginning sentences

Spell out any number that begins a sentence. If this requires three or more words, rephrase the sentence so that the number comes after the opening and numerals can be used.

The year 1989 was a good year for this wine.

Sixty thousand fans jammed the stadium.

An army of 265,000 troops assaulted the city. (If this number began the sentence, five words – an excessive number- would be needed to write it out.)

ITALICS

Titles of longer publications and artistic works

These items may include the following: books, magazines, newspapers, record albums, paintings, movies, long musical works and poems, plays, and sculptures.

e.g. Last night I finished F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby and read two articles in The New Yorker. (book, magazine)

Michelangelo’s David is surely one of the world’s greatest sculptures. (sculpture)

The Detroit Free Press had praise for the revival of Tennessee William’s play The Glass Menagerie. (newspaper, play)

Stephen Vincent Benet’s poem John Brown’s Body won a Pulitzer Prize in 1929. (book length poem)

Names of vehicles and vessels: names of particular airplanes, ships, trains, and spacecrafts.

e.g. The plane in which Charles Lindbergh flew over the Atlantic Ocean was named The Spirit of St. Louis.

Foreign expressions

Use italics to identify foreign words and phrases that have not yet made their way into the English language. When such expressions become completely assimilated, the italics are dropped.

e.g. The writer has a terribly pessimistic weltanschauung. (philosophy of life)

This season, long skirts are the dernier cri. (the latest thing)

Expressions singled out for special attention.

These include words, letters, numerals, and symbols.

e.g. I can’t tell whether this letter is meant to be an a or an o or this number a 7 or a 9.

In England, the word lorry means truck.