Explaining what a law says

There are several ways to refer to what a law says. Look at the following sentences: The law stipulates that corporations must have three governing bodies. The law provides that a witness must be present. The patent law specifies that the subject matter must be 'useful'. These verbs can also be used to express what a law says: The law states / sets forth / determines / lays down / prescribes that ...

6. Speaking Choose a law in your jurisdiction that you are familiar with and explain what it says using the verbs listed in the box above.

 

GRAMMAR 2

VERB

PRESENT SIMPLE & PRESENT CONTINUOUS

Study the following information.

The Present Simple is used:              · - for permanent states, repeated actions and daily routines. E.g. He works at a law office. He prepares legal documents · - for general truths and laws of nature. E.g. It rarely rains in deserts. · - for timetables (trains, planes, etc.) and programmes. E.g. The planes to London take off at 6 am. · - for sports commentaries, reviews and narration. E.g. He kicks the ball and passes it to Dawson. Time expressions: always, usually, often, seldom / rarely, sometimes, never, every day/week, etc., in the morning / afternoon / evening, at night / the weekend, etc.

The Present Continuous is used: · - for actions taking place now, at the moment of speaking, or for temporary actions; for actions that are going on around now, but not at the actual moment of speaking. E.g. She is working hard these days. Right now she is reading her text-book. · - with always, constantly, forever, continually to express our irritation at actions which happen too often. E.g. You are always forgetting to do your homework. · - for actions that we have already arranged to do in the near future, especially when the time and place have been already decided. E.g. He is meeting his client at 3pm. · - for changing or developing situations. E.g. More and more forests are disappearing because of fires. Time expressions: now, at the moment, at present, these days, tonight, nowadays, still, etc.

RESENT PERFECT & PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

 Study the following information:

The Present Perfect is used for an action: · which happened at an unstated time in the past. The exact time is not mentioned, because it is either unknown or unimportant. The emphasis is on the action. E.g. I have read this book. · which has recently finished and whose result is visible in the present. E.g. She has broken her leg. (Her leg is in plaster.) · which started in the past and continues up to the present, especially with state verbs such as be, have, like, know, etc. In this case we often use for, since and how long. E.g. I have been in the University since 8 o’clock in the morning · which has happened within a specific time period that is not over at the moment of speaking. We often use words and expressions such as today, this morning / evening / week / month, etc. E.g. I haven’t seen him today. (The time period – today – isn’t over yet. I may see him later.) BUT: I saw him yesterday. (The time period – yesterday – is over.) · We use the present perfect to announce a piece of news and the past simple or continuous to give more details about it. E.g. The police have finally arrested Peter Duncan. He was trying to leave the country when they caught him. The present perfect is used with the following time expressions: for, since, already, yet, always, just, ever, never, so far, today, this week / month, how long, recently, lately, still (in negations), etc.

The Present Perfect Continuous is used: · to put emphasis on the duration of an action that started in the past and continues up to the present, especially with the time expressions such as since, for, all morning / day / year, etc.  how long. E.g. I have been doing my homework for three hours. · for an action that started in the past and lasted some time. The action may have finished or may still be going on. The result of the action is visible in the present. E.g. She feels tired. She has been working (all morning). · to express anger, irritation or annoyance. E.g. Somebody has been giving away our plans. (The speaker is irritated.) · With the verbs live, work, teach and feel we can use the present perfect or present perfect continuous with no difference in meaning. E.g. We have lived / have been living here for twenty years. The present perfect continuous is used with the following time expressions: for, since, how long, lately, recently, all day / morning, etc.

State Verbs

State verbs are verbs, which do not normally have continuous tenses because they describe a state rather than an action. These include:

· verbs that express likes and dislikes: like, love, hate, prefer, enjoy, adore, etc.;

· verbs of mental perception: believe, know, remember, forget, recognize, understand, realize, seem, think, etc.

· verbs of sense perception: see, hear, feel, taste, look, smell, sound.

· some other verbs: be, contain, fit, include, matter, need, belong cost, owe, own, appear (=seem), want, have (=possess), etc.

Some state verbs have continuous tenses, but there is a difference in meaning. Study the following examples:

1. I think he’s lying. (= believe)	I’m thinking about the plan. ( = am considering)
2. The food tastes delicious. (= has a delicious flavour)	He is tasting the food. (= is trying)
3. I see some people. (= perceive with my eyes)	I’m seeing my lawyer tomorrow. (= am meeting)
4. It looks as if they’ve finished the job. (= seem)	She is looking out of the window.
5. The perfume smells nice. (= has a nice smell)	He is smelling the milk. (= is sniffing)
6. The baby’s hair feels like silk. (has the texture of)	She is feeling the baby’s forehead. (= is touching)
7. He has a car. (= possesses)	He’s having lunch. (= eating)
8. The baby weighs 3 kilos. (has a weight of)	She is weighing the baby. (= is measuring how heavy it is)
9. This dress fits you perfectly. (= it’s the right size)	We’re fitting new locks. (= are putting in)
10. He appears to be nervous. (=seems)	He is appearing in a new play. (= is taking part)
11. He is a rude person. (= character – permanent state)	He is being rude. (= behaviour – temporary situation)

Note. a) The verb enjoy can be used in continuous tenses to express specific preference. E.g. I’m enjoying this party a lot. But: I enjoy going to parties.

b) The verbs look (when we refer to a person’s appearance), feel (experience a particular emotion), hurt and ache can be used in either the continuous or simple tenses with no difference in meaning. E.g. You look / are looking great today.

1. Put the verbs in brackets into the present simple or present continuous. A.)

1. A: ___________ (you / know) that man over there? B: Actually, I do. He’s our new boss. 2. A: Are you doing anything tomorrow evening? B: Yes. I  ___________ (see) Jack at nine o’clock. 3. A: I  ___________ (see) you’re feeling better. B: Yes, I am, thank you. 4. A: What’s that noise? B: The people next door  ___________ (have) a party. 5. A: Tom  ___________ (have) a new computer. B: I  ___________ (know). I’ve already seen it. 6. A: This dress ___________ (not / fit) me any more. B: Why don’t you buy a new one? 7. A: Your perfume  ___________ (smell) nice. B: It’s a new perfume called Sunshine. 8. A: What is Jane doing? B: She ___________ (smell) the flows in the garden. 9. A: What  ___________ (you / look) at? B: Some photos I took during my holidays. 10. A: You  ___________ (look) very pretty today. B: Thank you. I’ve just had my hair cut. 11. A: I ___________ (think) we’re being followed. B: Don’t be silly. It’s just your imagination. 12. A: Is anything wrong? B: No, I ___________ (think) about my report. 13. A: This fabric ___________ (feel) like silk. B: It is silk, and it’s very expensive. 14. A: What ___________ (you / do)? B: I ___________ (feel) the radiator to see if it’s getting warm. 15. A: She ___________ (be) generous, isn’t she? B: Yes, she has never been a mean person. 16. A: He ___________ (be) very quiet today, isn’t he? B: Yes, I think he has problems.17. A: Would you like some cherries? B: Yes, please. I ___________ (love) cherries. 18. A: I’m sorry, but I ___________ (not understand) what you ___________ (mean). B: Shall I explain it again? 19. A: The children are making lots of noise today. B: I know, but they ___________ (have) fun. 20. A: This cake ___________ (taste) awful. B: I think I forgot to put the sugar in it!

B.) 1. A: Why ___________ (you / smell) the soap? B: It ___________ (smell) lovely. It’s like roses. 2. A: Why ___________ (you / taste) the soup? B: To see is it ___________ (taste) good. I think it needs more salt. 3. A: I ___________ (see) Andy this evening. B: I ___________ (see). So, you don’t want to come to the cinema with me. 4. A: How much ___________ (the bag / weigh)? B: I don’t know yet. The man ___________ (weigh) the bag now. 5. A: I ___________ (think) about buying a new car soon. B: Why, I ___________ (think) your car is fine. 6. A: I ... (feel) very tired today. B: You should go to bed early. 7. A: What ___________ (you / look) at? B: The sky. It ___________ (look) as if it’s going to rain. 8. A: I really ___________ (enjoy) home-made food. B: So do I, and I ___________ (enjoy) every bit of this meal. 9. A: Why___________ (feel) the radiator? B: It ___________ (feel) cold in here. Is the heating on? 10. A: The famous opera singer ___________ (appear) at the opera house tonight. B: Yes. He___________ (appear) to be feeling better after the operation. 11. A: Chris ___________ (be) a sensible person, isn’t he? B: Yes, but in this case, he ___________ (be) rather foolish. 12. A: My dad ___________ (fit) the old blind from the living room in my bedroom now. B: Really? ___________ (it / fit) that window? 13. A: My back ___________ (hurt). B: Why don’t you lie down for a while?

 

2. Put the verbs into the present continuous, present perfect or present perfect continuous.

1. A: How long _____________ (you / know) Alison? B: We ___________ (be) friends since we graduated from the University. 2. A: Who _________ (use) my car? B: I have. Is it a problem? 3. A: What _____________ (they / do) at the moment? B: They _________ (work) in the garden for three hours. 4. A: I ___________ (always / believe) that exercise is good for you. B: Of course, it’s good to keep fit. 5. A: Why is Andy upset? B: She ____________ (lose) her bag. 6. A: Mr. Hews __________ (teach) maths since he graduated. B: Yes, and he is a very good teacher. 7. A: Fred _______________ (work) on his book for a year. B: I know. He __________ (already / write) 2 chapters. 8. A: This problem is quite difficult. B: I ___________ (not / try) to solve it yet. 9. A: ____________ (the police / find) the murderer? B: Not yet. They ______________ (look) for him for a month. 10. A: You look exhausted. B: Yes. I ____________ (study) all day. 11. A: Can I have some lemonade, please? B: Sorry, your brother ____________ (just / drink) it all.

 

3. Choose the correct answer.

1. A: What time does the train leave? B: I think it … at 2 o’clock.

a) leaves                            b) has been leaving            c) has left

2. A: Where are Tom and Pauline? B: They … to the supermarket.

a) have just gone              b) have been going            c) go

3. A: What is Jill doing? B: She …. for a job for six months.

a) is looking                       b) has been looking           c) looks

4. A: Is Mandy watching TV? B: No. She … her homework right now.

a) is always doing             b) is doing                         c) does

5. A: Have you been for a walk? B: Yes. I often … for a walk in the evenings.

a) have gone                      b) am going                       c) go

6. A: Have you seen any films lately? B: Yes. Actually, I … two films this week.

a) have seen                       b) am seeing                      c) see

7. A: What …? B: It’s a piece of cherry pie. Mum made it yesterday.

a) are you eating                b) do you eat                     c) have you eaten

8. A: Are you going on holiday this summer? B: Yes. I … enough money.

a) am saving                      b) have already saved       c) save

9. A: Is Todd reading the newspaper? B: No. He … dinner at the moment.

a) is making           b) makes                            c) has been making has been making

10. A: Have you bought any new CDs recently? B: Yes. I … two this month.

a) have bought                  b) have been buying          c) am buying

11. A: What time does the play start? B: I think it … at 8 o’clock.

a) has been starting           b) starts                             c) has started

12. A: Where is Mark? B: He … to the library to return some books.

a) has gone                        b) has been                        c) is going

13. A: What …? B: it’s a letter to my penfriend. I’m telling her my news.

a) have you written           b) do you write                 c) are you writing

 

4. Put the verbs into the correct Present tense.

1. A: What ___________ (you / do)? B: Nothing. I __________ (just / finish) my lunch. 2. A: Where _______ (you / be) all morning? B: I __________ (clean) the house since 8 o’clock. 3. A: _________ (you / do) anything next week? B: No, I __________ (not / make) any plans yet. 4. A: Jane looks great. _____________ (she / lose / weight)? B: Yes, she ___________ (exercise) a lot recently. 5. A: __________ (be / you) busy right now? B: Yes, I ___________ (just / start) typing this report. 6. A: Where is Peter? B: He ____________ (wash) the car at the moment. 7. A: Who _______ (be) your favourite actor? B: I _________ (like) Sean Connery since I was a child. 8. A: ______________ (you / do) your homework yet? B: Almost, I _____________ (do) it now.

PAST SIMPLE & PAST CONTINUOUS

Study the following information:

The past simple is used: for an action which happened at a definite time in the past. The time is stated, already known or implied. E.g. They spent their holidays in Switzerland. They had a great time. for actions which happened immediately one after the other in the past. E.g. First, he read the message, then he called his boss. for past habits or states which are now finished. In such cases we can use the expressions used to and would (only for past actions). E.g. People travelled / used to travel / would travel by carriage in those days. to talk about the lives of people who are no longer alive. E.g. Marilyn Monroe starred in a number of successful films. The past simple is used with the following time expressions: yesterday, last night / week / month, etc., two days / weeks ago, then, the other day, When..? How long ago…?, in 1992 / 1845, etc.

The past continuous is used: for an action which was in progress at a stated time in the past. We do not mention when the action started or finished. E.g. At three o’clock we were discussing this problem. for an action which was in progress when another action interrupted it. We use the past continuous for the action in progress (longer action) and the past simple for the action which interrupted it (shorter action). E.g. He was walking when he met his friend. for two or more simultaneous actions. E.g. They were making notes while he was making the report. to describe the atmosphere, the setting, etc. in the introduction to a story before we describe the main events. E.g. We were riding through the forest. The sun was shining and birds were singing. The past continuous is used with the following time expressions: when, while, as, all day / night / morning, at .. o’clock, etc.

PAST PERFECT & PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Study the following information.

The Past Perfect is used: · for an action which happened before another action or before a stated time in the past. E.g. they had already examined the witness when they heard this terrible news. · for an action which finished in the past and whose result was visible in the past. E.g. Dan had injured his legs in a car accident, so he had to use a wheelchair for six months. Note: the past perfect is the past equivalent of the present perfect. Compare the examples. a) He had broken his leg, so he couldn’t walk. b) He has broken his leg, so he can’t walk. The Past Perfect is used with the following time expressions: before, after, already, for, since, just, till / until, when, by, by the time, never, etc.

The Past Perfect Continuous is used: · to put emphasis on the duration of an action which started and finished in the past before another past action or a stated time in the past usually with since or for. E.g. they had been discussing the question for a few hours before they came to agreement. · for an action which lasted for some time in the past and whose result was visible in the past. E.g. she had been working hard that day, so she was tired. Note: the past perfect continuous is the past equivalent of the present perfect continuous. Compare the examples. a) Hehad been waiting for hours, so he was bored. b) He has been waiting for hours, so he is bored. The Past Perfect Continuous is used with the time expressions: for, since, how long, before, until, etc.

We can use the past perfect or the past simple with before and after without any difference in meaning. E.g. she left after she had finished her work. She left after she finished her work.

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