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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Zillig, Winfried (Petrus Ignatius)
(b Würzburg, 1 April 1905; d Hamburg, 18 Dec 1963). German composer and conductor. He studied with Schoenberg from 1925 to 1928, first privately in Vienna, then as a student at the Preussische Akademie der Künste in Berlin. He was an assistant of Kleiber’s at the Berlin Staatsoper (1927–8). He worked as a solo coach and conductor at the Staatstheater in Oldenburg (1928–32). There he helped mount one of the first performances of Berg’s Wozzeck outside a major opera house. Zillig held the post of conductor in Düsseldorf from 1932 to 1937 and in Essen from 1937 to 1940. He was then the principal musical director of the Reichsgautheater in occupied Poznań (1940–43). From 1947 to 1951 Zillig conducted at the Hessische Radio in Frankfurt, and from 1959 until his death he led the music division of NDR. As conductor and lecturer, he energetically promoted the music of Mahler, Schreker, Reger and Schoenberg, and was responsible for the first European performances of many works. Some of his radio programmes served as the basis for his survey of 20th-century music Variationen über neue Musik. Together with Webern, Berg and Eisler, Zillig was one of Schoenberg’s first students to employ 12-note techniques. He came to view 12-note harmony as a more general form of traditional tonality. His musical style has often been characterized as a synthesis of Schoenbergian and Stravinskian styles. Inspired by Schoenberg’s Suite op.29, Zillig often divided his note row into diatonic units, such as four triads. He also favoured chords frequently associated with contemporary French music, such as tertian harmonies, major-minor triads, and the Petrushka chord. His 12-note music often suggested tonal centres. Rhythms in his compositions tended to be more pointed, less fluid than Schoenberg’s. Zillig’s dodecaphonic/neo-classical amalgam remained remarkably consistent over his lifetime. Zillig exaggeratedly claimed, after 1945, that his music was banned by the National Socialist cultural authorities. However, many of his post-1933 compositions had their premières in Nazi Germany. With the success of his film score for Der Schimmelreiter (1933), Zillig received many commissions for film music and other incidental music, including for the Reichsfestspiele at Heidelberg. In 1936 his Romantische Sinfonie in C was commissioned and performed by the Reichssinfonieorchester of the Nationalsozialistische Kulturgemeinde. An opera, Das Opfer (1937), a heroic tale of self-sacrifice set at the South Pole, fared less well, principally because of its quirky libretto and demanding chorus parts. The folkloric Die Windsbraut (1941) enjoyed a successful première in Leipzig. At the war’s end Zillig was at work on an opera based on Troilus and Cressida, which he hoped would be ‘worthy of the heroism’ of his times. He also composed about 150 songs during this period. In his last years he completed Schoenberg’s oratorio Die Jakobsleiter, on the basis of Schoenberg’s sketches, and prepared the vocal score of the same composer’s opera Moses und Aron. As a composer his reputation increased with the publication of most of his compositions in the late 1950s. By then, the difficulties of his works were easily comprehended and his music was valued for its Romantic sound, rhythmic verve and orchestral imagination. WORKS Dramatic
Instrumental
Vocal
WRITINGS ‘Aufsatz über die Zwölftonmethode’, in J. Rufer: Die Komposition mit zwölf Tönen (Berlin, 1952), 197 ‘Schönbergs “Moses und Aron”’, Melos, xxiv (1957), 69–71 Variationen über neue Musik (Munich, 1959, 2/1963 as Die neue Musik: Linien und Porträts) ‘Arnold Schönbergs “Jakobsleiter”’, ÖMz, xvi (1961), 193–204 Von Wagner bis Strauss (Munich, 1966) BIBLIOGRAPHY U. Dibelius: ‘Winfried Zillig’, Musica, xii (1958), 651–5 S. Günther: ‘Winfried Zillig: Komponist und Dirigent neuer Musik’,NZM, Jg.122 (1961), 446–7 T.W. Adorno: ‘Zilligs Verlaine-Lieder’, Moments musicaux: neu gedruckte Aufsätze 1928 bis 1962 (Frankfurt,1964), 141–52 T.W. Adorno: ‘Winfried Zillig: Möglichkeit und Wirklichkeit’, Impromptus: Zweite Folge neu gedruckter musikalischer Aufsätze (Frankfurt, 1968), 157–65 H. Federhofer: ‘Winfried Zillig Einführung in die Zwölftonmusik’, Musik und Bildung, vi (1974), 561–6 W. Konold: ‘Hindemith, Hartmann und Zillig heute’, Hindemith-Jb, viii (1979), 119–37 H.G. Klein: ‘Atonalität in den Opern von Paul von Klenau und Winfried Zillig – zur Duldung einer im Nationalsozialismus verfemten Kompositionstechnik’, GfMKB: Bayreuth 1981, 490–94 E. Levi: ‘Atonality, 12-Tone Music and the Third Reich’, Tempo, no.178 (1991), 19–26 S. Hilger: Autonom oder ungewandt? Zu den Hörspielmusiken von Winfried Zillig und Bernd Alois Zimmermann (Mainz, 1996) GREGORY S. DUBINSKY Ziloti [Siloti], Aleksandr Il'yich (b nr Kharkiv, 27 Sept/9 Oct 1863; d New York, 8 Dec 1945). Ukrainian pianist and conductor. He studied the piano at the Moscow Conservatory with Zverev from 1871 and with Nikolay Rubinstein, Taneyev, Tchaikovsky and Hubert from 1875, graduating with a gold medal in 1881. He worked with Liszt in Weimar (1883–6), co-founded the Liszt-Verein in Leipzig, and made his professional début there in 1883. Returning in 1887, he taught at the Moscow Conservatory, where his students included Goldenweiser, Maksimov and his cousin Rachmaninoff. In this period he began work as editor for Tchaikovsky, particularly on the first and second piano concertos. He left the conservatory in May 1891 and from 1892 to 1900 lived and toured in western Europe. He also toured New York, Boston, Cincinnati and Chicago in 1898. From 1901 to 1903 Ziloti directed the Moscow PO; from 1903 to 1917 he organized, financed and conducted the influential Ziloti Concerts in St Petersburg, where he presented Auer, Casals, Chaliapin, Enescu, Hofmann, Landowska, Mengelberg, Mottl, Nikisch, Schoenberg and Weingartner, and local and world premières of works by Debussy, Elgar, Glazunov, Prokofiev, Rachmaninoff, Rimsky-Korsakov, Skryabin, Sibelius, Stravinsky and others. Diaghilev first heard Stravinsky at a Ziloti Concert. In 1918 Ziloti was appointed intendant of the Mariinskiy Theatre, but late the following year fled Soviet Russia for England and finally settled in New York in 1921. From 1925 to 1942 he taught at the Juilliard School of Music, where he became a venerated figure and occasionally gave recitals of Liszt’s music. His private students included Marc Blitzstein and Eugene Istomin. He wrote over 200 piano arrangements and transcriptions and made orchestral editions of Bach, Beethoven, Liszt, Tchaikovsky and Vivaldi. Ziloti also made eight piano rolls and published reminiscences of Liszt, Moi vospominaniya o F. Liste (St Petersburg, 1911; Eng. trans., 1913/R). BIBLIOGRAPHY S. Bertensson: ‘Knight of Music’, Etude, lxiv (1946), 369 L.M. Kutateladze and L.N. Raaben, eds.: Aleksandr Il'yich Ziloti, 1863–1945: vospominaniya i pis'yma (Leningrad, 1963) B. Dexter: ‘Remembering Siloti, a Russian Star’, American Music Teacher, xxxviii/4 (1989), 18–21 C. Barber: Lost in the Stars: the Forgotten Career of Alexander Siloti (Berkeley, forthcoming) CHARLES BARBER Zimbabwe , Republic of. Country in southern Africa. It has an area of 390,759 km2. The most vibrant forms of contemporary Zimbabwean music draw on indigenous traditions of the Shona, Ndebele and various minority linguistic groups; syncretic genres that emerged during the colonial period; music of Christian churches; and a variety of urban popular styles. European classical music has a relatively small presence, mainly among the white élite and the post-independence black élite. Chishona (Shona) is the mother tongue for approximately 71% and Sindebele (Ndebele) for 16% of a population of 12·39 million (2000 estimate). Many people also speak English, the former colonial language and now an official language. Europeans and Asians, the two largest foreign groups, comprise no more than 2% of the population. The majority of Zimbabweans live as agriculturalists/herders and farm labourers in rural areas, and 20% of the population live in Harare and Bulawayo, Zimbabwe’s two largest cities. For the black working class, there is much movement between urban townships and rural homesteads; both indigenous music styles and urban popular traditions are performed in the townships and countryside. There is a major collection of audio and video recordings of indigenous and urban popular music and dance in the National Archives of Zimbabwe in Harare. 1. Historical background. 2. Indigenous traditions. 3. Modern developments. BIBLIOGRAPHY THOMAS TURINO Zimbabwe Historical background. Before the 19th century the region of Zimbabwe was inhabited by a number of local chieftaincies and kingdoms. Linguistic groups, including Zezuru, Korekore, Karanga, Ndau and Manyika, became known collectively as ‘the Shona’ during the colonial period. The Ndebele fled Zululand in South Africa in the early 19th century, taking over what is now south-western Zimbabwe near Bulawayo. A variety of mission groups accompanied colonial occupation (1890–1980). Christianity has been widely accepted and adapted in myriad ways to indigenous religious beliefs. Shona religion, which remains central for many people, maintains relationships with family and lineage ancestors through spirit possession within special ceremonies. These ceremonies remain primary sites for indigenous musical performance along with guva (grave) ceremonies held a year after death, and at weddings, funerals, agricultural tasks such as grinding and threshing, and also at informal beer parties and jit dancing in rural areas and beerhall performances in the cities. Municipal governments and social organizations have held festivals for indigenous performers since the 1960s. Professional dance troupes also perform indigenous dance at tourist locations. Zimbabwe Indigenous traditions. Hosho (gourd rattles) and a variety of ngoma (drums) are the most common indigenous instruments among the Shona and Ndebele. Short single-headed drums played with sticks as well as taller, 1.2 metre high single-headed drums played in pairs with hands are used for a variety of dance genres; the heads are attached with pegs and tuned with the application of heat to the drumhead. The Shona are well known for their performance of several regional types of Lamellophones, including the Zezuru mbira from the Harare area, the hera and matepe of Korekoreland in the north, the njari (fig.1), originally associated with south-central Zimbabwe, and the karimba. Each of these instruments has its own distinctive key arrangement, number of keys and tunings. Whereas the hera and matepe have remained largely localized in the north, the njari was widely diffused in the first half of the 20th century, later replaced by the 22 key Zezuru mbira as the most popular Shona lamellophone after the 1960s. The term mbira is sometimes used generically to refer to lamellophones; in such contexts the Zezuru mbira is distinguished by a variety of names such as mbira huro and mbira dza vadzimu. Ngororombe panpipes are performed in large ensembles with drums, hosho and leg rattles in north-eastern Zimbabwe, usually in pairs with two and three tubes played in interlocking fashion. Several chipendani (fig.2) and mukube (mouth bows) are performed for informal entertainment. Less commonly, animal-horn trumpets are used as drones. Popularized by Kwanongoma Music College in Bulawayo since the 1960s, the marimba is now played throughout Zimbabwe. Most Zimbabwean genres involve solo or group singing. Shona music is organized in cycles. Mbira and matepe pieces are based on cycles of four phrases of 12 fast pulses each (12/8); particularly common in ngororombe, karimba and a good deal of dance-drumming and choral vocal music are cycles comprising two 12/8 phrases. Dance-drumming genres may also have cycles of 16 (8/8) and 18 (9/8) pulses. The music is usually heptatonic with descending melodies. Responsorial singing and the interlocking or hocketing of many rhythmic and melodic parts at different structural levels are standard practice. Dense overlapping textures are favoured. Like much African music, instrumental and vocal parts may be categorized according to their ground and elaboration functions. Hosho, supporting drums, and the basic kushaura mbira part supply the foundational structures for elaboration by singers, lead drummers, accompanying mbira players and dancers. In choral music one group of singers may maintain the basic ostinato, which might be either a single melody or the resultant of call-and-response parts, while others provide overlapping, interlocking variations. Distinctive Shona vocal techniques include yodelling and a good deal of improvised singing on vocables; Ndebele singing often resembles slower Zulu choral styles with an emphasis on the outer voices. There is a plethora of regional dance-drumming, instrumental and vocal genres. In Mashonaland these are often categorized by their relationship to spirit possession. The mbira and matepe genres are closely associated with spirit possession ceremonies that take place indoors, although this music is also frequently performed for secular occasions. Karimba are typically used in secular contexts, and njari have both ritual and non-ritual uses. Ngororombe is not associated with spirit possession but rather with recreational outdoor activities at weddings, beer drinks and guvas; guva ceremonies may involve spirit possession inside and other activities outside the house. Among the dance-drumming genres in the north-east, dhinhe and dandanda are almost completely restricted to spirit possession ceremonies inside the house. Performed with call-and-response singing, hosho and two short drums, dandanda songs are typically two-phrase ostinato in 12/8 patterns. Like mbira dance music, dandanda is performed collectively. Dancers enter individually at will and move in their own personal styles. In the same region, the jerusarema dance is strictly associated with outdoor recreational activities. Performed with two tall ngoma (drums), hosho, woodblocks and vocals, jerusarema is a playful dance comprising active and resting sections of two 4/4 sections each. In the active sections, the male dancers clap interlocked patterns with woodblocks as a base for the drummer’s varied repertory of formulaic patterns; in the resting sections the male dancers are silent and the drummer plays a simple holding pattern. The men sing vocables and yodel throughout both sections. The main dancing by individuals, couples or groups of women during the active section involves a series of standardized moves, playful choreography and mime. Recreational dance-drumming genres, such as shangara from central Zimbabwe and mbukumba from further south, emphasize intricate rhythmic footwork. Muchongoyo, associated with the Ndau people of south-eastern Zimbabwe, is a militaristic dance style modelled on certain Nguni dances of South Africa and requires great choreographic precision. Isitchikitcha was originally a dance associated with spirit possession among the Ndebele, but more recently it is sometimes performed as a recreational dance. Zimbabwe Modern developments. (i) Colonial syncretic styles. Mission and government school singing generated several derivative styles. Adult choirs in urban townships maintained the same style comprising hymns, North American spirituals, choir music by black middle-class South African composers, and secular songs from England and the United States (e.g. Shortin’ Bread) sung with tonal harmonies in precise homophonic arrangements and enunciation of the texts. In contrast, makwaya emerged in rural areas and among the urban working class. Makwaya, like the term itself, which is an Africanization of ‘choir’, involved adaptation of school performance practices according to indigenous aesthetics. Makwaya singing variably combines triadic harmonies and homophonic singing with call-and-response, overlapping textures, freer variations, harmonies in 4ths and 5ths and indigenous vocal techniques such as yodelling. Beginning in the 1920s European zithers, harmonicas, accordions and banjos were brought to Zimbabwe from South Africa by returning migrant workers. From the 1940s through the 1960s itinerant acoustic guitarists performed styles ranging from North American country and blues (Jimmie Rodgers was an important model) to a wide variety of local indigenous songs. Both recreational and religious dance-drumming songs were adapted to a two-finger picking style (thumb and index finger), with chords played in standard tunings to accompany the guitarists’ singing. Mbira pieces were performed with a slide, or bottle-neck, technique on guitars with open tunings. Innovative performers, including Jeremiah Kainga, Josaya Hadebe, George Sibanda, Ngwaru Mapundu and Pamidze Benhura, performed for tips in beerhalls, on streets and at township parties. These performers were sometimes hired to entertain farm workers and miners and were recorded for radio broadcast. In the 1950s and 60s acoustic guitarists superimposed fast 12/8 Shona rhythms onto South African chord progressions (e.g. I–IV–I–V) and tsaba, marabi and jive rhythms in moderate 4/4 time to create the jit, or jiti, dance genre. Jit was then diffused to rural villages where it is still performed with drums, hosho and group singing. In the 1970s and 80s jit was readapted to guitars by urban electric bands, and it remains one of the most prominent urban popular genres in Zimbabwe. After World War II various mission groups began to foster an Africanization of church music in contrast to previous policies that discouraged indigenous music-making. Several missionaries who became prominent ethnomusicologists, including A.M. Jones, Robert Kauffman and John Kaemmer, were involved in this effort. Olof Axelsson characterized the resulting acculturated church music as incorporating responsorial singing, descending melodies, adherence to language tones, polyrhythmic structures and the use of parallel 4ths and 5ths as African, with adherence to diatonic scales and tonal harmony with the addition of 3rds as European. In contemporary Zimbabwe, African church performance runs the gamut from standard cosmopolitan repertory and style to the use of music and dance strongly based in indigenous styles, aesthetics and practices. (ii) Urban popular music. By the mid-1930s a form of urban popular concert music grew out of the school singing tradition in the townships of Harare and Bulawayo. As concert music emerged, the number of performers was reduced from the school choirs, and instrumental accompaniment in the form of a combination of guitar, piano, bass, traps and woodwinds was added, but the focal point was usually a vocal quartet, quintet or sextet. From the late 1940s through the 1960s these groups were closely modelled on the Mills Brothers and the Ink Spots and also similar South African groups such as the Manhattan Brothers. Their concerts involved cosmopolitan popular music, carefully choreographed dance, and skits for well-dressed, middle-class African audiences in township recreation halls. Kenneth Mattaka’s Bantu Actors was the prototype, and sometimes training ground, for many of the most prominent groups, such as De Black Evening Follies, the Epworth Theatrical Strutters, the City Quads, the Golden Rhythm Crooners and the Cool Four. Dorothy Masuka, Zimbabwe’s first international singing star, was born in Bulawayo. Performing in a style reminiscent of Miriam Makeba, she worked in South Africa with Makeba and the Manhattan Brothers and in Zimbabwe with the Golden Rhythm Crooners in the late 1950s and early 1960s. She lived and performed outside the country from the mid-1960s to 1980. The origin of many instrumental jazz and dance bands in Zimbabwe may be traced to the Police Band, which supplied instruments and training for members who moonlighted. August Musarurwa, Zimbabwe’s most revered jazz saxophone player and composer, left the Police Band in 1947 and formed the Cold Storage Band, later renamed the Bulawayo Sweet Rhythm Band. He recorded his international hit, Skokiaan (referring to illicit alcohol), with this group for Gallo of South Africa (GB11 52.T); sheet music with words by Tom Glazer was published by Gallo in 1952. The text refers to ‘happy, happy Africa’, and this may be the source for the title of Louis Armstrong’s version of the song. Musarurwa’s music was known as tsaba-tsaba, a southern African derivation of swing in duple metre on simple harmonic vamps (e.g. I–IV–I–V, I–V). Musarurwa and other Zimbabwean jazz bands emphasized the basic melody more and improvisation less than their North American counterparts. Jazz dance bands, including the Harare Hot Shots and the City Slickers, performed for both black and white ballroom dancing, a particularly popular activity among the colonial black middle class. The acoustic guitar, concert and jazz traditions declined in popularity with the advent of rock-and-roll around 1960. A host of young combos comprising two electric guitars, bass, traps, vocals and occasionally saxophones emerged during the 1960s and 70s. At first their repertories included covers of North American rock and rhythm and blues artists; rumba and cha cha cha diffused to Zimbabwe by Zaïrean bands after the late 1950s, and, in the late 1960s, South African mbaganga, an electrified, bass-heavy style of urban jive in duple metre. The liberalization of liquor laws and the opening of African night clubs after 1957 inspired the formation of new bands with professional aspirations. Between 1966 and 1974 groups such as the Harare Mambos, the Springfields with Thomas Mapfuno, Saint Paul’s Band, the Zebrons and the Beatsters experimented with adapting indigenous Shona songs to rock rhythms and styles as part of their bid to appeal to new audiences. A gradual shift from rock-based to indigenous aesthetics and style occurred as this trend progressed. In 1968, M.D. Rhythm Success included indigenous drums and drumming in their guitar-band rendition of a jit song in 12/8, and in 1973 they recorded, in indigenous style, a song based on the classical mbira piece Kuzanga (Gallo GB.3739 and GB.3815). In 1974, Lipopo Jazz, originally a Harare-based Zaïrean rumba band, recorded a song based on the mbira piece Taireva (GB.3868), as did Thomas Mapfumo with Joshua Hlomayi and the Hallelujah Chicken Run Band, Ngoma Yarira, based on Karigamombe (Teal AS 105). For this genre the four-phrase mbira cycle is performed with a damped technique by the guitar, bass and sometimes keyboards and with the drummer playing the triplets of the hosho part on the highhat. In conjunction with the Liberation War of the 1970s, urban audiences were increasingly receptive to arrangements of indigenous music. A number of electric bands, including Thomas Mapfumo and the Blacks Unlimited, Oliver M’tukudzi, Jonah Sithole and Storm, Jordan Chataika and the Highway Stars, the Green Arrows, among others, were performing indigenous-based music with political lyrics in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Thomas Mapfumo emerged as the foremost national and international exponent of this style in the 1980s and 90s. In the mid-1980s he added mbira players to his band and continued to develop his indigenous style of singing. In response to Mapfumo’s international success, a new generation of bands emerged in the late 1980s that performed jit, mbira music and a variety of other indigenous Shona and Ndebele genres, thus maintaining this unique Zimbabwean style alongside other international popular styles. Zimbabwe BIBLIOGRAPHY And other resources H. Tracey: ‘The Mbira Class of African Instruments in Rhodesia (1932)’, African Music, iv/3 (1969), 78–95 R.A. Kauffman: Multi-Part Relationships in the Shona Music of Rhodesia (diss., UCLA, 1970) A. Tracey: ‘The Matepe Mbira Music of Rhodesia’, African Music, iv/4 (1970), 37–61 A. Tracey: ‘The Original African Mbira?’, African Music, v/2 (1972), 85–104 O.E. Axelsson: ‘Historical Notes on Neo-African Church Music’, Zambezia, iii/1 (1973), 89–100 A. Tracey: ‘The Family of the Mbira: the Evidence of the Tuning Plans’, Zambezia, iii/1 (1973), 1–10 J.E. Kaemmer: The Dynamics of a Changing Music System in Rural Rhodesia (diss., Indiana U., 1975) P.F. Berliner: The Soul of Mbira: Music and Traditions of the Shona People of Zimbabwe (Berkeley, 1978) R.A. Kauffman: ‘Tradition and Innovation in the Urban Music of Zimbabwe’, African Urban Studies, vi (1980), 41–8 O.E. Axelsson: ‘The Development of African Church Music in Zimbabwe’, Symposium on Ethnomusicology [I]: Grahamstown 1981, 2–7 A.J.C. Pongweni: Songs that Won the Liberation War (Harare, 1982) F. Zindi: Roots Rocking in Zimbabwe (Gweru, Zimbabwe, 1985) B. Chinamhora: ‘African Popular Music’, ‘Classical Music’, and ‘Traditional Music’, Tabex Encyclopedia Zimbabwe, ed. K. Sayce (Harare, 1987), 261–8 J.E. Kaemmer: ‘Social Power and Musical Change among the Shona’, EthM, xxxiii/1 (1989), 31–46 D.A. Maraire: The Position of Music in Shona ‘Mudzimu’ (Ancestral Spirit) Possession (diss., U. of Washington, 1990) A.M. Impey: They Want Us with Salt and Onions: Women in the Zimbabwean Music Industry (diss., Indiana U., 1992) C. Jones: Making Music: Musical Instruments in Zimbabwe Past and Present (Harare, 1992) K.W. Asante: An Aesthetic Analysis of the Jerusarema and Muchongoyo Dances (diss., New York U., 1993) M.S.B. Lane: ‘The Blood that Made the Body Go’: The Role of Song, Poetry and Drama in Zimbabwe’s War of Liberation, 1966–1980 (diss., Northwestern U., 1993) E. Brown: ‘The Guitar and the Mbira: Resilience, Assimilation, and Pan-Africanism in Zimbabwean Music’, World of Music, xxxvi/2 (1994), 73–117 Recordings The Soul of Mbira, coll. P.F. Berliner, Nonesuch H-72054 (1973) Shona Mbira Music, coll. P.F. Berliner, Nonesuch H-72077 (1977) Corruption, perf. I Mapfumo, Mango MLPS 9848 (1989) Chamunorwa, perf. T. Mapfumo, Mango 162-539 900-1 (1991) Music of Zimbabwe: Earth and Spirit, coll. T. Turino, RTP L4 VA 100 (????) Zimbala (Sp.). See under Organ stop (Zimbel). |
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