ЧАСТЬ 1. ОСОБЕННОСТИ НАУЧНОГО СТИЛЯ: ЛЕКСИЧЕСКИЕ И ФРАЗЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ СРЕДСТВА, РАЗНОВИДНОСТИ И ЖАНРЫ

ЧАСТЬ 1. ОСОБЕННОСТИ НАУЧНОГО СТИЛЯ: ЛЕКСИЧЕСКИЕ И ФРАЗЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ СРЕДСТВА, РАЗНОВИДНОСТИ И ЖАНРЫ

Научный стиль – функционально-стилевая разновидность литературного языка, которая обслуживает разнообразные отрасли науки (точные науки, естественные, гуманитарные и др.), область техники и производства и реализуется в жанрах монографии, научной статьи, диссертации, реферата, тезисов, научного доклада, лекции, сообщения на научные темы, рецензии, а также в учебной и научно-технической литературе и т. д. Важнейшая задача научного стиля речи – объяснить причины явлений, сообщить, описать существенные признаки, свойства предмета научного познания.

Научный стиль принадлежит к числу книжных стилей литературного языка, обладающих общими условиями функционирования и схожими языковыми особенностями, среди которых: предварительное обдумывание высказывания, монологический характер речи, строгий отбор языковых средств, стремление к нормированности речи. Основной формой реализации научного стиля является письменная речь, хотя с повышением роли науки в различных сферах деятельности, расширением научных контактов, развитием средств массовой коммуникации возрастает роль и устной формы общения с использованием научного стиля.

Главной коммуникативной задачей общения в научной сфере является выражение научных понятий и умозаключений. Мышление в этой сфере деятельности носит обобщенный, абстрагированный, логический характер. Этим обусловлены такие специфические черты научного стиля, как отвлеченность, обобщенность, подчеркнутая логичность изложения, и вторичные, более частные, стилевые черты: смысловая точность (однозначность выражения мысли), информативная насыщенность, объективность изложения, отсутствие образности и эмоциональности. Обобщенность и отвлеченность языка научной прозы диктуются спецификой научного мышления. Наука трактует о понятиях, выражает абстрактную мысль, поэтому язык ее лишен конкретности. В этом отношении он противопоставлен языку художественной литературы.

Фразеологические средства научного стиля

Фразеологические сочетания научного стиля также характеризуются своими особенностями. Здесь употребляются общелитературные, межстилевые устойчивые обороты, выступающие в номинативной функции: глухой согласный, наклонная плоскость, десятичная дробь, щитовидная железа, очаг заболевания, точка кипения, магнитная буря, демографический взрыв. Первоначально свободные словосочетания вследствие устойчивости формы и воспроизводимости превращаются во фразеологизмы терминологического характера (составные термины). В отличие от других типов словосочетаний терминологические словосочетания утрачивают образность и не имеют синонимов.

К фразеологии научного стиля можно отнести также различного рода речевые клише: представляют собой, включает в себя, состоит из..., применяется в (для)..., заключается в..., относится к... и т. п.

Неупотребительны в научном стиле слова и устойчивые словосочетания с эмоционально-экспрессивной и разговорной окраской, а также слова ограниченной сферы употребления (архаизмы, жаргонизмы, диалектизмы и т. д.).

РЕЗЮМЕ: ПОНЯТИЕ, ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКИ, ПЛАН НАПИСАНИЯ

Резюме часто используется на занятиях английского языка, и это преследует несколько целей. Во-первых, написание резюме дает уникальную возможность расширить свой активный и пассивный запас слов. Во-вторых, с помощью резюме преподаватели могут легко оценить общий уровень владения языком, уровень понимания прочитанного и умения излагать свои мысли на английском языке.

Написание резюме представляет огромную трудность для студентов. И неумение составлять его сильно усложняет жизнь изучающих английский язык, так как резюме часто является частью реферата статьи, анализа текста, рецензии фильма, эссе, сочинения, изложения, презентации.

Определимся с самим понятием резюме, чтобы провести четкую границу между ним и другими видами письменных работ (эссе, реферирование, сочинение, изложение). Итак, резюме – краткое содержание основных идей текста; это не просто изложение мыслей автора своими словами, но также выделение только существенных основных мыслей текста.

Существует несколько обязательных характеристик хорошего резюме:

· Оно должно точно и адекватно передавать содержание текста оригинала.

· Оно должно быть кратким и содержать только самую важную информацию.

· Следует избегать повторений, подробных описаний и примеров.

· Прочитав резюме, человек, незнакомый с оригиналом, должен понять основную мысль первоначального текста.

· Не допускается полное цитирование текста оригинала.

· По возможности оно должно быть написано в настоящем времени.

· Не следует использовать личные местоимения, чтобы избежать неясности.

· Объем резюме должен составлять не более 1/3 или 1/4 оригинала.

· В нем не должно содержаться предложений, которые можно было бы трактовать неоднозначно.

· Допускается изменять порядок предложений, мыслей, структуру текста оригинала с целью сделать резюме более понятным и логичным.

· Прямую речь нужно переделывать в косвенную.

Пошаговый план написания резюме:

1) Сначала необходимо ознакомиться с заголовками и подзаголовками текста, обратить внимание на выделенные курсивом или жирными шрифтом слова, цитаты. Необходимо иметь очень четкое представление об их значении.

2) Далее бегло проглядываем текст, чтобы получить общее представление о том, что в нем говорится, о языке автора, цели написания статьи.

3) Следующим шагом, несомненно, нужно вдумчиво прочитать всю статью, обращая внимание на непонятные слова и фразы. Необходимо выделить основную мысль текста. Желательно найти в тексте и выделить предложение, отражающее его основную идею. Особое внимание также следует обратить и на первое предложение. Часто оно имеет ключевое значение. Если есть возможность, то нужно распечатать копию статьи и карандашом или цветными ручками выделить основную мысль. Это поможет в дальнейшем исключить излишнюю детализацию текста. Кроме того, выделяем в тексте часто повторяющиеся ключевые слова.

4) Необходимо также выделить основную мысль каждого абзаца. Очень эффективно в каждом абзаце выбрать по одному предложению, более полно отражающую его основную мысль.

5) Наиболее простая стратегия – сначала написать резюме, состоящее из одного предложения, ко всему тексту, то есть передать значение всего текста одним предложением. Затем пишется резюме к каждому абзацу. Здесь также нужно соблюдать краткость. Содержание абзаца должно суммироваться в одно предложение!

6) Теперь приступаем к написанию самого резюме. Кроме основной мысли всего текста в первом предложении необходимо указать автора и название статьи (книги). Затем излагаем краткое содержание каждого абзаца (это мы заготовили заранее). Здесь важно отметить, что можно изменить порядок абзацев. Следующее предложение должно логически вытекать из предыдущего. Желательно, чтобы в конце содержался вывод.

7) Теперь перечитываем готовый черновик и добавляем вводные слова и фразы, которые призваны облегчить переход от одной мысли к другой (Примеры фраз я приведу во второй части статьи). Необходимо проследить, чтобы границы между мыслями автора были плавными. Не стоит забывать, что резюме должно дать человеку, незнакомому с данной книгой или статьей, общее представление о ее теме. Вашему предполагаемому читателю предстоит решить, интересно ли ему будет прочитать всю книгу или статью. Ваша цель – заинтересовать, поэтому язык резюме должен быть разнообразным, живым, ясным, четким.

8) Перечитываем готовое резюме, исправляем грамматические, орфографические и стилистические ошибки. Иногда есть смысл еще раз сократить некоторые моменты, исключить примеры.

9) Обычно личное мнение в резюме включать не нужно.

ОБРАЗЦЫ КОМПРЕССИИ ТЕКСТОВ

Аннотация статьи «Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников
как универсального учебного действия»

В данной статье рассматриваются особенности самоконтроля в учебной деятельности младших школьников как универсального учебного действия, дается уточненное определение понятия «самоконтроль в учебной деятельности младших школьников» и уточненный операционный состав действия самоконтроля. Автор устанавливает соотношение между формами самоконтроля и способами учебной деятельности. В статье определяются объекты для самоконтроля в учебной деятельности младших школьников.

Резюме статьи «Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников
как универсального учебного действия»

Статья Н. «Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников как универсального учебного действия» посвящена проблеме формирования самоконтроля в учебной деятельности младших школьников.

Отмечая плодотворность научных исследований по проблеме формирования самоконтроля в данной возрастной группе, автор указывает, что ФГОС начального общего образования требует, чтобы самоконтроль был сформирован как универсальное учебное действие, которое понимается как совокупность способов действия учащегося, обеспечивающих его способность к самостоятельному усвоению новых знаний и умений, включая организацию этого процесса.

Автор придерживается следующей классификации видов самоконтроля: 1) контроль в форме произвольного внимания, используемый при сопоставлении действия с заданным образцом; 2) упреждающий контроль, используемый при отсутствии образца и заключающийся в соотнесении действия с условиями его выполнения и ожидаемыми результатами; 3) рефлексивный самоконтроль, используемый в случае перестройки способа действия или его создания и представляющий собой систему проб, состоящих в примеривании изменяющегося способа действия к новым условиям его выполнения.

Автор указывает, что в структуре учебной деятельности выделяют контроль соответствия полученного результата требуемому и контроль способов получения этого результата. При этом, для предметных способов проработки учебного материала логично использовать упреждающий самоконтроль и самоконтроль в форме произвольного внимания; для индивидуальных способов проработки учебного материала и способов организации учения – рефлексивный самоконтроль и самоконтроль в форме произвольного внимания. В качестве эталонов для самоконтроля результатов учебной деятельности предлагаются способ осуществления учебной деятельности, характеристики уровней сформированности умений и навыков, конкретный результат выполнения учебного задания.

Для развития самоконтроля автор предлагает использовать дневник самоконтроля, включающий элементы портфолио (работы учащихся), памятки, требования по усвоению учебного материала, критерии оценок, а также листы самооценок своих достижений и самого процесса учения.

Рассматривая самоконтроль как действие, автор уточняет его операционный состав:

1) формулировка цели контроля; 2) определение основных линий, по которым возможен и целесообразен контроль; 3) определение показателей по каждой из намеченных линий, которые могут быть использованы в процессе выполнения действий и которые окажутся пригодными для проверки результатов; 4) фактическая оценка выполняемого или выполненного действия по всем линиям и на основе всех намеченных показателей; 5) оценка результатов действия с точки зрения объективных и субъективных возможностей его выполнения; 6) определение, на основе предшествующей оценки, перспектив получения более высоких результатов; 7) принятие решения о характере коррекции; 8) внесение корректив; 9) повторная фактическая оценка.

Автор приходит к заключению о том, что под самоконтролем целесообразно понимать действие, направленное на достижение максимального соответствия способа учения, а также способа решения познавательной или практической задачи в учебной деятельности и его результата заданному эталону (самоконтроль в форме произвольного внимания), а при его отсутствии цели деятельности (упреждающий и рефлексивный самоконтроль) на основе сличения, оценки и коррекции. Специфика этого действия заключается в том, что оно непосредственно не связано с предметным материалом, оно регулирует деятельность за счет соотнесения результата и процесса осуществления деятельности с эталоном или условиями его выполнения в случае отсутствия эталона или его несоответствия целям и условиям выполнения деятельности. Основное назначение контрольного действия заключается в том, чтобы привести свою деятельность в соответствие с эталоном-образцом ее осуществления, а в случае отсутствия образца – с целями и условиями ее осуществления.

Автор подчеркивает, что самоконтроль младших школьников развивается в учебной деятельности, одновременно обеспечивая усвоение ее структуры. Педагогическое управление развитием самоконтроля должно быть организовано с учетом возрастных особенностей детей, требований ФГОС и развивающего потенциала самой учебной деятельности.

Рецензия на статью «Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников
как универсального учебного действия»

В статье «Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников как универсального учебного действия» Н. рассматривает содержание понятия «самоконтроль в учебной деятельности младших школьников» в условиях перехода на новые образовательные стандарты, в которых целью и основным результатом образования признается развитие личности ребенка за счет усвоения универсальных учебных действий, обеспечивающих его способность к самообразованию.

Актуальность темы, рассматриваемой автором статьи, не вызывает сомнения, так как изменение целей начального общего образования предполагает умение младших школьников осуществлять самоконтроль за процессом усвоения и применения универсальных учебных действий, что расширяет рамки области применения самоконтроля в учебной деятельности на начальном этапе обучения. Более того, включение самоконтроля в состав универсальных учебных действий дает возможность рассмотреть это понятие в рамках теории деятельности.

Н. обосновывает выбор классификации типов самоконтроля на основании наличия или отсутствия эталона для сличения: самоконтроль в форме произвольного внимания, упреждающий самоконтроль и рефлексивный самоконтроль. Далее автор устанавливает соответствие между типами самоконтроля и способами учебной работы (специфическими предметными способами, индивидуальными способами и способами организации учения), а также результатами, достигаемыми в процессе обучения (способом учения, общим способом решения задач данного класса и результатом выполнения конкретного задания на учебном материале). Интерес представляет определение роли и места самоконтроля и процессе освоения нового материала.

Автор предлагает использовать специальные средства для фиксации результатов учебной деятельности, что позволяет младшим школьникам осуществлять мониторинг своей учебной деятельности и развивает у них контрольно-оценочные умения.

Отдельного внимания заслуживает подход автора к понятию самоконтроля с точки зрения теории деятельности и уточненный операционный состав действия самоконтроля.

Статья Н. «Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников как универсального учебного действия» соответствует требованиям, предъявляемым к работам данного типа. Статья рекомендована к публикации.

ЧАСТЬ 2. ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЕ ЗАДАНИЯ

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TEXT 5. DIEGO MARADONA

Maradona was born in 1960 in a poor area of the Argentinian capital, Buenos Aries, and started playing football in the street as a small boy. By the age of twelve he was working as a ball boy at the stadium of Argentinos Juniors, one of the Buenos Aires teams. He played his first game for the Argentinos Juniors first team just before his sixteenth birthday and stayed with the club until 1981, when he joined a more famous Buenos Aires team, Boca Juniors. By this time, though still only twenty-one, he was already the most important player in the Argentina national team. In 1982 he moved to Europe, played in Barcelona for two years and then went to Italy to join Napoli. He soon became a hero with the Napoli fans and was the main reason the team became national champions in 1987 and 1990.

It was as captain of Argentina during the 1986 World Cup finals in Mexico, however, that the most famous moments in Maradona’s career took place. Argentina won the competition and Maradona played brilliantly in most of their games. In the quarter-final against England, which Argentina won 2-1, Maradona scored a goal by punching the ball into the goal. Then, less than five minutes later, he ran with the ball for sixty metres, past five England players, to score what many people think is one of the best goals in the history of football. English fans said the first goal made Maradona a cheat, but most of them agreed the second showed he was also a genius.

After Maradona stopped playing in 1997 he had lots of health problems. There were times when he was very overweight, and in 2004 he had a heart attack and almost died. Since then, however, life for Maradona has improved. In 2005 he became the host of a chat show on Argentinian TV called ‘The Night of 10’, because that was the number of the shirt he always wore as a player, and recently, in October 2008, he became the coach of the Argentina national team.

BECKHAM

David Robert Joseph Beckham was born in Leytonstone, London on May 2nd, 1975. Keen on football from very early on, David won the Bobby Charlton Soccer Skills Award when he was 11. Five years later, at the age of 16, he signed on as a trainee at Manchester United Football Club. The following year, he made his first team debut as a substitute but it was another three years before he started playing full-time in the Premier League. He established himself as a quality player in the 1995/96 season. In 1996 he started playing for the England senior team and the year ended with him being voted Young Player of the Year.

He was left out of the team for the first two matches of the World Cup, but in the match against Colombia he scored a stunning free kick and became the hero of England. However, in the next match, against Argentina, Beckham was sent off for a childish foul on Diego Simeone. England lost the match and went out of the World Cup. Everyone blamed Beckham and the newspapers wouldn’t leave him alone. Many predicted that his career was over – the fans hated him, the newspapers hated him and even people who didn’t know him hated him. Despite all the odds, he answered his critics by playing better football and keeping his temper under control. Gradually, the fans started to appreciate him once more.

TEXT 6. MANCHESTER UNITED

Many English football teams have the word United in their name, but by far the most famous is from the northern city of Manchester and plays in red shirts and white shorts. When football fans refer to Manchester United just as ‘United’, as they often do, other fans always know who they mean.

It’s possible that United have more fans than any other football team in the world. Their stadium, Old Trafford, holds around 75,000 people and is full for almost every match. It’s also true that tens of millions of people around the world watch their matches on TV, and that when they play friendlies thousands of miles away in Asia or Africa (as they have done in recent years in July or August, before the English football season starts) the crowds are always very big.

The club was founded back in 1878 and has had a successful history. It has won the English championship eighteen times (the same number as Liverpool, their biggest rivals) and the European Champions’ League (previously the European Cup) three times.

A well-known tragedy in United’s history was when many of their best players died in a plane crash in Munich, Germany, in 1958. It seemed the club might not recover, but ten years later, in 1968, they became the first English team to win the European Cup.

United’s best players in their great team of the late 1960s included Bobby Charlton (probably the most famous English footballer of the 1960s) and George Best (who some say was the best player who never played in a World Cup – the reason was that he was from Northern Ireland, a country that never qualified for the World Cup during his career).

United were not so good in the 1970s and 80s but have been very successful again since the 1990s under their Scottish manager Alex Ferguson. In the 1990s the best players included Eric Cantona, a Frenchman who was very popular with the fans, and David Beckham, who even people who hate football have heard of.

United’s best player at the moment is perhaps the 24-year-old English forward Wayne Rooney. He is so good that some fans think England have a chance of winning the 2010 World Cup if he plays, but no chance if he gets injured.

RONALDINHO

You’ve probably never heard of Ronaldo de Assis Moreira, even though he is one of the most famous sportsmen in the world. That’s because almost everyone knows him by his nickname, which means ‘little Ronald’ in his native Portuguese.

His face is familiar to billions of people because of his achievements on the pitch, his big front teeth and almost permanent grin, and also the large number of TV adverts he has appeared in. It’s also difficult to find a football-related computer game that doesn’t have his picture somewhere on the packaging. The sportsman we are talking about is, of course, the 26-year-old Brazilian footballer Ronaldinho.

Everyone who enjoys football would agree that he is one of the most entertaining players in the world, often showing skills that even opposition fans applaud. He has been playing for Barcelona since 2003 and for Brazil since 1999, and has scored many memorable and important goals for both teams.

Born in the city of Porto Alegre in the south of Brazil, his football skills were obvious from a young age. When he was eight he started playing at junior level for Gremio, a club in Porto Alegre, and at thirteen he scored 23 goals in one match! The media began to realize how special he was when he reached the Gremio senior team, and by 2001, when he moved to France to play for Paris St Germain, he was already one of the most well-known young footballers in the world. Though he played very well for Brazil in the 2002 World Cup, he was not so successful in Paris – his manager said he was more interested in nightlife than in matches. After he moved to Barcelona, however, his performances were so good that no one worried about his continued enjoyment of nightclubs.

Ronaldinho’s goals were one of the main reasons why Barcelona won the Champions’ League, the most prestigious football competition in the world, in 2006. As he himself says, ‘God gives gifts to everyone ... Some can write, some can dance. He gave me the skill to play football and I am making the most of it.”

( Source : Стройков, С.А. Broaden Your Horizons /Учебное пособие по переводу общественно-публицистических текстов с английского языка на русский – Самара: Издательство «Офорт», 2011. – 192 с.)

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TEXT 7. GOLFING GENIUS

Eldrick Tont "Tiger" Woods (born December 30, 1975)is an American professional golfer whose achievements to date rank him among the most successful golfers of all time. Formerly the World No. 1, he is the highest-paid professional athlete in the world, having earned an estimated US$90.5 million from winnings and endorsements in 2010.

Woods turned professional in 1996, and by April 1997 he had already won his first major, the 1997 Masters. He first reached the number one position in the world rankings in June 1997. Through the 2000s, Woods was the dominant force in golf, spending 264 weeks from August 1999 to September 2004 and 281 weeks from June 2005 to October 2010 as world number one. From December 2009 to early April 2010, Woods took leave from professional golf to focus on his marriage after he admitted infidelity. His multiple infidelities were revealed by several different women, through many worldwide media sources.^[ This was followed by a loss of form, and his ranking gradually fell to a low of #58 in November 2011. He snapped a career-long winless streak of 107 weeks when he captured the Chevron World Challenge in December 2011.As of June 4, 2012, he is ranked #4, after winning the 2012 Memorial Tournament.

Woods has broken numerous golf records. He has been world number one for the most consecutive weeks and for the greatest total number of weeks of any other golfer. He has been awarded PGA Player of the Year a record ten times,the Byron Nelson Award for lowest adjusted scoring average a record eight times, and has the record of leading the money list in nine different seasons. He has won 14 professional major golf championships and 73 PGA Tour events, tied for 2nd all time with Nicklaus behind Sam Snead.He has more career major wins and career PGA Tour wins than any other active golfer does. He is the youngest player to achieve the career Grand Slam, and the youngest and fastest to win 50 tournaments on tour. Additionally, Woods is only the second golfer, after Jack Nicklaus, to have achieved a career Grand Slam three times. Woods has won 16 World Golf Championships, and won at least one of those events in each of the first 11 years after they began in 1999.

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TEXT 8. AGAINST THE CLOCK.

On 6^th May 1954, at an athletics track in Oxford, England, a 25-year-old medical student and amateur athlete called Roger Bannister achieved what many people thought was impossible: he became the first person to run a mile (1.61 kilometres) in less than four minutes. His exact time was 3:59.4, which means three minutes, 59 seconds, and four tenths of a second.

The mile had always been an especially exciting race for many athletics fans, and a large crowd had turned up to see if Bannister could make history. Runners had been getting closer to the four-minute barrier ever since the 1850s, when people first started recording the time they took to complete their races. In the 1850s the world record for the mile was 4:26, but by 1954 it had come down to 4:01.3.

Bannister needed to push his body to the limit in order to run as fast as he did, but said after the race that his achievement was more ‘psychological’ than ‘physical’: the most important thing was to believe he could do it.

It seems this was true, because Bannister certainly inspired many other athletes around the world. Less than six weeks later an Australian athlete, John Landy, set a new record of 3:57.9, one and a half seconds faster than Bannister, and within two years another fifty men had run a mile in less than four minutes.

The number of male professional runners who have broken the four-minute barrier is now in the hundreds, partly because training methods have become more advanced, and the current world record for the mile is the amazing time of 3:43.13 set by the Moroccan Hicham El Guerrouj in 1999.

However, the four-minute mile remains an important target for the best amateur runners, and is still something no woman has managed to achieve – the world record for a female runner in the mile is 4:12.56, set by the Russian Svetlana Masterkova in 1996.

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TEXT 10. SURFING

Surfing is something people often get hooked on after trying it a few times. For many surfers it is much more than a hobby – they would probably agree with the American professional surfer Kelly Slater when he said ‘Once you’re in, you’re in. There’s no getting out.’

Surfing, of course, means riding on waves in the ocean using a surfboard. Many surfers stand up on their boards, which requires good balance and is therefore difficult for most beginners to learn, but some lie down (‘bodyboarding’).

The history of surfing probably began with the Polynesian people of the Pacific Islands. One of the first white people to see anyone surfing was the British explorer Captain Cook, when his ship arrived in Hawaii in 1778. He watched many Hawaiians riding waves on large pieces of wood, and saw that ‘they seem to feel a great pleasure’.

When surfing started to become very popular in the United States in the 1950s and 60s, surfers used large wooden boards (often more than 3 metres long) that were quite heavy. Boards today are almost always shorter and also much lighter, because they are made of artificial materials instead of wood.

For anyone who wants to try surfing, the only essential things are waves and a board. There are a few other things, however, that most surfers find important: a cord to attach one of their ankles to the board and therefore stop the board going a long way away when they fall off; wax, which they put on the surface of the board to help their feet stick to it; and a wetsuit to help them keep warm in cold water. The south-west of England is an example of a place where surfers usually need wetsuits, even in summer.

Surfing has been a professional sport for many years and the very best surfers are able to make a living from it. Most of the best professional surfers in the last 30 years, both men and women, have been American or Australian, but surfers from Brazil, Peru and South Africa have also won important competitions.

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TEXT 12. DARTS

The player, a 49-year-old Englishman nicknamed ‘The Power’, walks forward to the line on the floor and looks at the target. He will win £200,000 in prize money if he can guide the object between his fingers to a small area on the edge of the circular board in front of him. The crowd in the indoor arena in London has spent most of the game shouting and cheering, but now falls silent. A much bigger audience is watching live on TV, this being one of the most popular televised sports in Britain. He throws, and the crowd erupts – he’s world champion again!
Most people who have lived in Britain will know that the sport described above is darts. The modern form of darts developed in Britain as a game people played in pubs while having a drink and chatting to friends, and the local pub is still the place where most of Britain’s darts players practise their skills. At least 6 million people – ten per cent of the total population – play the game at least occasionally. Since the 1970s darts has also been a serious professional sport, with world championships in which players from more than 30 countries now compete. The most important championships are usually dominated by British players, the most successful of whom is the aforementioned Phil ‘The Power’ Taylor, but Dutch and Australian players have also done well in recent years.

The sport involves throwing pointed metal darts, from a distance of around 2.5 metres, at a circular board (dartboard) with a diameter of about 45 centimetres. Games are usually contested by two players, who take it in turns to throw three darts at the board. The darts are usually around 15 centimetres in length and have very thin pieces of plastic (flights) attached to their tails that allow them to fly well, while most dartboards are made of a special fibre that allows the darts to penetrate and yet doesn’t get damaged by them.

The board is divided into sections, numbered 1 to 20, for which the players score a corresponding number of points when they hit them with their darts. Low numbers are usually next to high numbers so as to punish players who are inaccurate when aiming for a high number. Within each of the 20 sections there is also a small ‘double’ and an even smaller ‘treble’ (or ‘triple’) area: a player scores 20 points for hitting the double area of the 10 section, for example, and 30 points for hitting the treble.

The maximum score with one dart is 60, achieved by hitting the treble 20. Good players often achieve this, even though each treble section is less than one centimetre wide, and professional players sometimes manage it with three consecutive darts, which always brings a roar from the crowd and an excited shout of ‘one hundred and eighty!’ from the referee.

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TEXT 13. BASKETBALL

What is the most popular sport in the world? Most people would probably say football, because of the many millions who play it and the even larger number who watch it on television. There are some, however, who say the correct answer is basketball – not because of its TV audience, which is certainly smaller than that for football, but because the number of people who regularly play the game might be higher (at least 300 million according to most estimates). In China, for example, which has a population of 1.3 billion, more people play basketball than football, and it is becoming more popular all the time.

Basketball has existed for less time than some of the world’s other major sports. It was invented in the early 1890s by a Canadian, James Naismith, working at a college in the state of Massachusetts in the United States. Wanting to create a game that could be played indoors during the long winters but would also be active enough to keep people fit, he had the idea of two teams of players trying to throw a ball into a basket that was above their heads.

Early basketball looked different from the game today: for example the basket didn’t have a hole in the bottom, so every time a player threw the ball in, someone had to go up to get it out again! Another difference is dribbling, which is when a player in modern basketball bounces the ball off the floor while moving across the court: it didn’t exist in early basketball because the balls didn’t bounce well enough.
One thing that hasn’t changed, though, is the height of the baskets: James Naismith put the first one 10 feet (3.05 metres) off the floor, and that’s where they’ve stayed.
The biggest international TV audiences in modern basketball are for games in the National Basketball Association (NBA) in North America, a league of thirty teams (twenty-nine from the United States and one from Canada) including famous names such as the Chicago Bulls, Boston Celtics and Los Angeles Lakers. Most of the players in the NBA are American but there are also some foreign stars such as Yao Ming from China and Dirk Nowitzki from Germany.

The United States has usually been the strongest team in international basketball competitions. In the last Olympic Games, in Beijing in 2008, the US men’s and women’s teams both won gold medals – the men beat Spain in the final and the women beat Australia.

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TEXT 15. CRICKET

Cricket, although loved by millions of people, is not one of the easiest sports to understand. Indeed, the game has lots of subtle complexities, and it’s probably fair to say that cricket fans tend to be quite proud of them.

The sport originated in England and spread to many parts of the former British Empire, hence its popularity today in countries such as Australia (the current world champions), New Zealand, India, Pakistan, South Africa, and many of the islands of the Caribbean.

You could perhaps describe cricket as being a bit similar to baseball, but cricket fans probably wouldn’t appreciate the comparison as they tend to see their game as much more sophisticated!

The basic facts of cricket are that it is played on a roughly oval -shaped grass field (usually at least 50% bigger than the average football pitch) by two teams of eleven players who take it in turns to ‘bat’ and to ‘field’.

The batting team has two of its players on the pitch at any one time, and the objective of these ‘batsmen’ is to score as many ‘runs’ as possible. To score runs the batsman uses a wooden bat to hit the ball that is thrown by the member of the fielding team known as the ‘bowler’. Unlike in baseball, the bowler has to make the ball bounce off the pitch before it reaches the batsman.

The bowler tries to get the batsman ‘out’, which usually happens in one of three ways: if the ball hits the ‘wicket’ (three vertical pieces of wood, about seventy centimetres high) that the batsman stands in front of; if the batsman uses his leg instead of his bat to block a ball that would have hit the wicket; or if one of the members of the fielding team catches the ball, after the batsman has hit it.

When ten of a team’s players are out, or when the bowling team has thrown the ball a certain number of times, it is the other team’s turn to bat. The team that scores more runs is the winner.

(Source: Стройков , С . А . Broaden Your Horizons/ Учебное пособие по переводу общественно - публицистических текстов с английского языка на русский – Самара : Издательство « Офорт », 2011. – 192 с .)

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Abstract

Legal issues in Physical Education are very germane to sport and physical activity development. Consequently, Physical Education teachers should be involved in studying laws that relates to P.E in the course of their professional preparation. It is worth noting that today, people are becoming more aware of their rights under the law. This has further awakened the need to ensure that Physical Education teachers are made to know the legal implications of negligently caused injuries in P.E class and also fashion-out “preventive mentality” in respect of these injuries. Unfortunately, it has been discovered that sports law is not included in the curriculum of physical Education in Nigeria. When dealing with various types of Physical Education programmes, P.E. teachers must look to protect themselves from any tortuous liability. To be able to do this, they must be familiar with the scenerios in which they can be vulnerable to tortuous liability.

Negligence is a tort that is often used to implicate P.E. teachers. It is very important that they understand the nuisances of tortuous liability and its relationship to P.E profession. They should also be aware of the legal defenses available to them if, despite all precautions, they are accused for negligence. The purpose of this study therefore is to discuss the concept of tortuous liability, what constitute negligence, sources of negligence in sport and the defense against negligence. This will reduce the possibility of there been liable.

Keywords: Negligence, Tortuous, Sport participation, Liable, Sanction

Introduction

Experts in the field of Physical Education are perturbed by the non-inclusion of sport law in the curriculum of Physical Education in tertiary institutions in Nigeria for instance. Legal issues in Physical Education are very germane to physical activity development; P.E. teachers should therefore be involved in studying laws that are related to P.E. This is because undermining these legal issues may have negative consequences on Physical Education development in Nigeria (Adesanya, 1992). Hence, major conditions and parameters as legal issues in Physical Education/Sports must be given enough priority.

It is worth noting too that the society is getting more enlightened as people are increasingly aware of their legal rights in all fields of human endeavour. This has further awaken the need to make know the legal implications of negligently caused injuries in P.E, moreso, when one realizes that victim will want to look for various sources to foot their medical bills except from their own pockets. Consequently, there is the need to fashion-out ” preventive mentality” in respect of Physical Education/Sport programmes and aspects of general standard , most especially when one may have to cough out the litigation fees for negligence due to ignorance. We are all aware that there is no room for ignorance in law.

An examination of the long list of items in the Exclusive Legislative list in Nigeria for instance, revealed the non-inclusion of Physical Education/Sports. Also, a perusal of items under Second Schedule of part II. Of the Concurrent Legislative list of 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria revealed the non-inclusion ofsport also. So, legal issues in P.E/Sports are concerned with the determination of rights and duties. Duty is the corollary of rights in the process of social interaction man qua man. While right describes what the person’s duty is what is due to the other person with whom he is in social interactions (Agbojimi, 2002).

The point at which law and Physical Education find expression is Section 40 of 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria which guarantees to every person the freedom to assemble freely, and associate with others, and in particular, to form or belong to any other association for protection of one’s interest (Agbonjimi, 2002). When dealing with various types of Physical Education programmes organizations, P.E teachers must look to protect themselves from any legal liability. To be able to do this, they must be familiar with the scenarios in which they can be vulnerable to legal liability. Legal liability can be defined as one taking responsibility for an act of omission or commission. Legal liability is caused by ‘Negligence’. Negligence consists of the failure to act as a reasonably prudent as the persons would under the circumstances involved. It can be seen as any conduct which falls below the standard established by law for the protection of others against unreasonable risk of harm. Negligence is a tort that is often used to implicate P.E teachers. It is very important that P.E. teachers understand the nuisances of tortuous liability and its relationship with the P.E profession. They should also be aware of the legal defenses available to them if, despite all precautions, they are accused of negligence (Irwin, Sutton, and McCarthy, 2002).The purpose of this study therefore is to discuss the concept of tortuous liability, what constitutes negligence, sources of negligence and defense against negligence. This will reduce the possibility of there been liable and assist in the development of Physical Education profession.

Tortuous Liability

Tort law is more deeply embedded in the past than any other branch of the common laws. Until comparatively recent times, a plaintiff under common law could sue in tort only if he could fit his claim into one of the recognized forms of action for which some particular writ of summons are available. In striking contrast to the development in common law, tort law in legal systems based on the civil law, seems to have advanced much from its historical roots (James, 2006). He also reported that the great jurist of the law of nature in the 17th and 18^th centuries enunciated the general principle that everybody shall be held liable for the damage caused by his fault and this principle has been embodied in various forms in many civil codes. An example is presented by article 1382 of the French code or Napoleon code. Many other civil codes based on the French mode have subsequently adopted similar provision. Other legal systems in the civil-law sphere have chosen somewhat more restrictive solution. The German civil code, for example grants protection to various specifically mentioned interest (Encyclopeadia Britanica). The law of torts in the earlier stage of its evolution usually consisted of a miscellaneous and more or less unconnected group of specific rules protecting a few particular interests against harmful interferences of a particular kind. Roman law for example, knew three principal torts:

Initurie – Intentional interference with persons

Furtum – Intentional interference with properties

Lex Aquila – covering losses caused by negligence.

The law of tort is the branch of the common law which is of immense importance in Nigeria. The rapid commercial and industrial growth which the country has experienced in the last few decades has ensured that there will never be a shortage of litigation in the major areas of tort liability, such as negligence (Kodilinye, 1990). Okupa (1992), Agbonjimi (2002) and Yakasai (2002) revealed that it is in the area of tortuous liability that the interesting lines between law and PE/Sports are prominent. As cases arising from P.E/Sporting activities seldom come before the courts in Nigeria, its jurisprudence is yet to take form but with modernization and exposure of people in this age of technology, we shall soon get to that point when students will institute legal action on issues that affect their well being. Ogunyemi (2008) revealed that most Nigerian students are beginning to know their rights under the law.

Tortuous liability arises as a result of breach of duty primarily fixed by the law; this duty is toward persons generally and its breach is redressible by an action for unliquidated damages (Reade and Bucher, 1975, Okupa, 1992, Agbonjimi, 2002). Torts is a branch of private law with its comparison, the law of contracts, it spells out the legal rules which regulate ‘’civil obligation’’. Torts can be described as a civil wrong involving a branch of duty fixed by the law, such duty being owned to persons generally and its beach being redressible primarily by an action for damages (Kodihinye, 1990 and Ogunyemi, 2002).

Wong (1994) perceived ‘tort’ as a legal term used in both common and civil-law systems to describe various wrongs that may give rise to civil proceedings, mainly in the form of an action for damages. It is concerned with the prevention of or compensation for harm sustained by a person through the unlawful or dangerous activities of others. The word ‘tort’ has its origin in the Latin word for tortuous, which means ‘twisted or ‘crooked’. It thus describes vividly the irregularity of the harmful conduct for which the law of tort provides a remedy. It is a harmful act against a person which gives the person the right to collect money for damage he suffered. Bucher (1975) and Yakasai (2002) asserted that P.E. teachers’ liability is ‘tort’ liability, that is, it is liability for personal or property injuries caused through the defendant’s negligence. Any tort action involves proof of four elements;

· That the defendant owed a duty to avoid unreasonable risk to others

· That the defendant failed to observe that duty

· That the failure to observe that duty caused the damage which occurred

· That the damage in fact occurred to plaintiff.

P.E Teachers and Torts

P.E teachers are subject to unusual rule covering tort liability. That is, they are liable for injuries resulting from their negligence and not liable, regardless of the kind of injury, if not negligent.

3.1 Concept of Negligence

From a practical point of view, negligence is the most important and dynamic of all torts. Its emergence as a separate tort in the early part of the nineteenth century coincided with the industrial revolution in England and the advent of machinery, railway and motor vehicles; and to this day it has retained its function as the principal means of compensating the victims of accidents, particularly those occurring in factories or on the roads. In Nigeria, negligence has only comparatively recently begun to assume the prominence which it has long enjoyed in the industrial common law countries and the increase in negligence litigation in Nigeria is directly linked with the dramatic growth of commercial activity and road traffic during the post-independence period (Kodilinye, 1990). Yakasai (2002) defined negligence as the failure to act as a reasonable, prudent and careful person would act under the circumstance to avoid exposing others to unreasonable danger or risk of injury or harm.

Bucher (1975) asserted that negligence is something that a reasonable person would not do or failure to do something that a reasonable person would do. It is failure to carry out one’s legal duty or failure to do something that could have been done with common sense. Agbonjimi (2002) noted that there are four fundamental conditions that must be tested by the jury and considered with respect to the particular circumstances of the case in other to prove negligence.

· A right must exist on the part of the plaintiff, and a corresponding duty must exist on the part of the defendant towards the plaintiff’s right.

· There must be a breach or failure on the part of the defendant to observe the duty towards the corresponding right of the plaintiff.

· That breach of duty must be the cause of the damages which occurred.

· The plaintiff must suffer damages.

3.2 Sources of Negligence

3.2.1 Supervision

According to Adesanya (1992), the importance of supervision in P.E/Sports cannot be over emphasized. Many cases involving negligent behaviours have been attributable to teachers’ lack of adequate supervision during physical activities. However, mere lack of supervision may not necessarily create liability, but the determining factor is whether or not such lack or inadequate supervision was the proximate cause of the injury. However, Emiola (1978) asserted that lack of supervision during sporting activities is frequently used as ground for litigation. It is lack of supervision if you fail to take appropriate care to prevent an accident. Along with the general duties associated with supervision, is matching and equating opponents in commonsense manner (Nygaard and Boon, 1985). In the case of Brooks V Board of Educ. a seventh-grader was injured in a gym class during a game of line soccer. The suit claimed that a physical mismatch was created by the negligent pairing of the students. The court ruled for the plaintiff, saying that the pairing for such a game, including both the site and the equipment was hazardous, hence the respondent was liable thus, was guilty of negligence.

3.2.2 Proper Instruction

According to Bucher (1975) and Yakasai (2002), this is a situation where the teacher failed to employ due care to give adequate guide and warning. For instance, if the instructor, although responsible for supervision absented himself or herself from the physical activity area. Cases involving various area of instruction frequently come before the courts in developed nations. The major complaint is that the player did not receive adequate instruction in the particular activity and for this reason, there was accident. Two examples of this are Larson v Inde. School Dist. No. 314 and Braham and Thompson v Seattle School Dist. No. 1. In the Larson case, an eighth-grader broke his neck while attempting to perform a head spring. The plaintiff showed that there was no reasonable progression of instruction in the preliminary gymnastics exercises leading up to the running head spring as outlined in the curriculum guide, and therefore the instruction was negligence. The Thompson case addressed the issue of warning the player of the inherent risk associated with football. Thompson a 15-year-old running back, caught a pass on the sideline and attempted to lower his head and run through an approaching tackler. The tragic consequence was a severed spinal cord injury. The teacher was liable in this case because he did not warn the student of the inherent risk involved in making contact with the head while playing. Consequently, the plaintiff was awarded 6.4 million dollar (Nygaard and Boon, 1985).

3.2.3 Equipment and Facilities

According to Pennman (1977) and Ajibua (2001), facility is used to designate ‘’play area’’ which are surfaced and equipped with such permanent or semi-permanent equipment as post, backboards and backstops. The planning, scheduling and maintenance of facilities and equipment should be the function of any P.E teachers (McQuila and Abraham, 2010). For example, if a student is injured in a tumbling race because the mat was not firmly fixed or slippery, the teacher will be found liable. The court will favour the injured student when official(s) have prior knowledge of hazard or condition which must be adjusted or repaired. An example is Gillmore V. London county council (1938). The plaintiff was a member of a physical training class run by the defendant. During an exercise in which members of the class were jumping at each other, one of them was injured through losing his balance on a floor which was slippery (although of course, he had consented to the physical contacts which occurred in the course of the jumping exercise). The defense of assumption of risk argued by the defendant in the case could not stand; he ought to have applied commonsense and disallowed the athletes from exercising on a slippery ground.

3.2.4 Injuries from Sport Participation

According to Emiola (1978), one area of athletic participant injuries is equal competition. Injuries arising from activities too advanced for the skill level, strength and maturation of the pupils can bring about suit of negligence against P.E teacher.

It is a known principle in P.E. profession that activities must be commensurate with the abilities of athletes.

Defense Against Tort

Should a suit be brought against a P.E. teacher for negligent action of some kind, he may base his legal defense on one or more of the following premises;

4.1 Proximate Cause

Negligence must be the direct and immediate cause remotely concerned with the injury or else the claim will be disallowed. Proximate cause is the situation where it could be established that negligence is closely connected with the injury. The teacher so charged (the defendant) may defend himself by basing his case on certain defenses like ‘Act of God’. Furthermore, the negligence of the defendant may not have been the proximate cause of the plaintiffs injury, for example in the case of Ohmon V. Board of the city of New York, 88 N.V.S. 2n 273 (1949), it was declared that when a 13 year old pupil in a public school was struck in the eye by a pencil thrown by another pupil to a third pupil who stepped aside, the case of injury was an unforeseen act of the pupil who threw the pencil and that absence of the teacher (who was taking stock in a closet nearby the gymnasium) was not the proximate cause of injury. Therefore the teacher could not be held liable. The negligence conduct must be a substantial factor in causing the injury or the claim will be disallowed.

4.2 Contributory Negligence

The law of negligence as applied to Physical Education is, prima facie, the same as is applied to determine negligence in any other field of activity and is based on Lord Atkins “neighborhood,’, Donoghue v Steveson (1932) AC 62. Thus the defendant must owe the claimant a duty to take reasonable care not to cause him harm, the defendant must have breached that duty by falling below the standard of behavior acceptable for that particular activity and that reasonably foreseeable harm must have been caused as a result of the breach of duty. The defense that claimant may face is that the act of the defendant fell below the standard of a reasonable P.E teacher.

Kodilinye (1990) viewed contributory negligence basically as negligence of the plaintiff himself which combines with the defendant’s negligence in bringing about the injury to the plaintiff. He further asserted that the conduct of the defendant under this situation had not lived up to that of the hypothetical reasonable and prudent man, but that the plaintiff would not have been injured or if injured at all such injuries would have being minimal if he (plaintiff) had behaved carefully. Nwegbu (1978) pointed out that it is the conduct on the part of the plaintiff, contributing as a legal cause to the injury he has suffered. Age can be a strong determinant of whether the injured person was matured enough to understand the consequence of his action, eighteen years of age seems to be the magic number in Nigeria. Bucher (1975) agreed that contributory negligence may occur when the injured person does not act as a reasonably prudent person of his age should act. In this case the negligence of the P.E. Teacher is cancelled. Adefarati J. in Olayinka V. Latin (1972) is a case in which an action for damages was brought under the fatal accident Law 1961 on behalf of the dependants of a cyclist who was knocked down and killed as a result of the defendants negligent driving. The deceased was held to have been contributorily negligent in entering the high way without first making sure it is save to do so (Kodilinye, 1990).

4.3 Unavoidable Accident

Emiola (1978) postulated that if an injury is not caused by negligence in its legal context, it is the result of accident unavoidability strongly implying unforeseenbility on behalf of all parties. In such case no liabilities can be asserted against the teacher. Hyath (1977) viewed unavoidable accident as an event which cannot possibly be prevented by the exercise or ordinary care, caution or skill. It is a defense for the defendant to establish that a certain event or result occurred despite the exercise of reasonable care on his part.

4.4 Volenti Non Fit Injuria (Assumption of Risk)

According to Kodilinye (1990) and Agbonjimi (2002), assumption of risk means no injury is done to one who consent. In order word, no person can enforce a right which he has voluntarily waived or abandoned. Consent means in effect, the agreement of the plaintiff, expressed or implied to exempt the defendant from duty care he would otherwise have owed. Vendien and Nixon (1985) pointed out there are lots of cases in which a party may suffer injuries for which tort law will not provide him with any remedy either because he consented or at least assented to the doing of the act which caused him injury. One who has invited or assented to an act being done toward him cannot when he suffers from it complain of it as a wrong.’’ Adedeji (1976) and Yakasai (2002) refer to assumption of risks as a risk which is assumed that an individual takes when engaging in various contact sports and games. The participant voluntarily and fully-assumed the dangers and accepted to abide by the consequences.

4.5 Act of God

Kodilinye (1990) asserted that where the injuries caused to a student is the result of natural forces free from human intervention, the defense of the ‘Act of God’ may be available. For example, if a player is struck by thunder during a training session, the P.E. teacher will not be liable because it is a natural occurrence which he cannot control. The defendant will not be made liable for an extra ordinary act of nature which he could not reasonably have anticipated. Emiola (1978) postulated that ‘Act of God’ is a situation that exists because of certain condition that are beyond the control of human beings, as lighting striking and injuring a soccer player. However, the courts have kept this defense within a very narrow campus, and there appears to be only few reported cases in which it has been allowed (Kodilinye, 1990).

4.6 Sudden Emergency

Emiola (1978) perceived this as pertinent in cases where the exigencies of the situation require immediate action on the part of a teacher and as a result, an accident occurs. For instance, if a student is drowning in the swimming pool and the P.E. teacher is running there to save him and in the course of his running if he collides with a pupil who sustain an injury, such a teacher will not be liable.

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Abstract

Purpose: Judo is a complex sport where different anthropological parameters determine performance. Judo, as a sport is not well known in India. There is evident lack of data concerning the anthropological determinants of judo players. This study was conducted to determine the anthropometric profile and Special Judo Fitness levels of judokas.

Methods: This cross sectional study was conducted on 31 judo players. Anthropometric profile was assessed by measuring height, weight, body mass index, body circumferences at seven sites, seven site skin fold thickness and body fat percentage as per standard accepted protocol. Special Judo Fitness Test – a specific test to evaluate the judo athlete's physical condition was applied. Statistical analysis done using Student’s unpaired ‘t’ test and correlation by Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient.

Results: Out of 31 judo players 20 had ≤5 yrs of judo practice (A group) and 11 >5 yrs of judo (B group). Anthropometric findings of both the judo groups were the same. Body fat has negative correlation (r =-0.690, P<0.05) with performance in SJFT. Observations during and after special judo fitness test were also similar.

Conclusions: Long term training has a minimal effect on anthropometry. Judo athletes of similar age when submitted to the same training type tend to show equal performance in the game and fitness levels after certain years of training. We also confirm existence of negative correlation between body fat and performance.

INTRODUCTION

Judo is a Japanese art and an Olympic sport, in which besides technical skill and tactical strategies, conditional (physical and physiological) characteristics are also indispensable for success in competition and for training. Competitive judo can be described as a combative, high intensity sport in which the athlete attempts to throw the opponent onto his back or to control him during groundwork combat. Both attempts depend on specific techniques and tactical skills with the support of good physical fitness. Being aware of the anthropometric and physiological characteristics of an elite athlete will pave the way for his success. As judo is a weight-classified sport, high level judo players should have low body fat. It has been suggested that percentage of body fat may be a discriminator for Success.

Judo is the sport in which movements are powerful, delivered in a short period of time, usually against the force of the opponent. It is a sport of changeable intensity of effort. During contest, the non-stop periods of maximum or submaximum intensity are separated by longer or shorter breaks. Fitness levels in judokas are evaluated based on special judo fitness test (SJFT) which gives effort tolerance levels in them. This test is of intermittent character with breaks between the test and uses a specific movement (throw) of the game called ippon-seoi-nage. The evaluation of physical characteristics is an important part of the training process because it gives information about the variables that need to be improved and about the effectiveness of a given training program. Hence, this study was undertaken to define and interpret the possible anthropological determinants, and special judo fitness levels in Indian judo practitioners.

METHODS AND SUBJECTS

Protocols and equipment:

The participants were divided into two groups depending on number of years of judo training. Judo A group consisted of players with ≤ 5 years of Judo and Judo B group consisted of the senior players with > 5 years of training. Both groups had been exposed to similar training regimens and the diet given to them was similar as all of them resided in the same sports hostel. Anthropometric measurements included: Height (m) was measured by a commercial stadiometer, Weight (kg) was recorded by digital scale with an accuracy of +100g, body mass index (BMI) was calculated from height and weight using Quetelet’s equation:

BMI = body weight in Kg / (height in meters).

Body Circumferences (cm) at seven sites (relaxed arm, flexed arm, forearm, wrist, thigh, calf and chest) were identified and measured using measuring tape as per standard protocol. Skin fold thickness (mm) was measured by Herpenden skin fold calipers (Anand agencies, Pune). Seven sites (triceps, subscapular, midaxillary, abdomen, suprailiac, medial calf and proximal thigh) were identified on the right side of the body and body density was calculated. Body fat % was calculated using SIRI’S EQUATION.

Special judo fitness test:

Two judokas (uke) of similar stature and body mass of the performer are positioned at 6m of distance of one another, while the performer of the test (tori) is three meters of distance from the judokas that will be thrown. The test is divided into three periods of 15s (A), 30s (B) and 30s (C) with intervals of 10s. During each one of the periods the performer throws the partners using the ippon-seoi-nage technique as much as possible. Immediately after and 1 minute after the end of the test, the athlete's heart rate is verified. The total of throws accomplished in this period is added and an index is calculated.

RESULTS

In this study out of 31 players 20 fall in group A and 11 in group B, depending on number of years of Judo training. The results shows the anthropometrical results from group A compared to group B which shows that no significant difference was found for these variables, Except that the height of players of A group was higher than B group players with statistically significant difference. Special judo fitness test shows no significant difference in performance

DISCUSSION

In the present study the height of A group was higher than B group judo players with a statistically significant difference. A study done on Polish judo players concluded that the body height of the fighters was moderately connected with the preferred techniques in combat. Hand techniques were preferred by short and medium-height fighters and leg techniques by tall fighters. In this study, there was no significant difference in body weight of the two judo groups and a non significant negative correlation between body weight and performance in the SJFT.

Despite there being no difference between the groups in anthropometrical characteristics, it is important to note that the body fat percentage was the same in both groups but, when compared to data on non players of same age from literature there was a huge difference that indicates that judo players were lean, this supports the assumption that judo players try to maximize lean body mass and minimize fat mass. It may also be just a reflection of physiological adaptations to long-term judo training. One study reported that elite judo athletes had higher circumferences (flexed arm, forearm, wrist, and medial calf) than non-elite judo players.

In the present study both groups had similar values in all these circumference measures. This finding corroborated with one of the studies, which reported that there were no differences in circumferences between the competing vs. non-competing judokas. A study on Brazilian elite and non elite players showed no difference in any skinfold measure which was a finding in this study also. This might be due to similar training sessions for all the players. The best proof of physical capacity is the practice of the sport. Therefore, the effects of endeavor in this discipline may be assessed on the basis of the competitor’s maximum metabolic abilities clashing with each other during combats.

In this study in SJFT not much difference was seen in number of throws, heart rate or SJFT Index between two judo groups. This finding was similar to the studies done before which indicates the same level of development and similar cardiovascular stress during this test for both groups. Recently a normative table was proposed to classify performance in the SJFT.

The athletes of the present study are classified as good in all variables in this test (number of throws, heart rate after, heart rate 1 min after, and index). Two studies reported a higher number of throws and a lower index in judo players (Brazilian and Polish) at the national level compared to athletes at a lower level.

A decrease in the heart rate (HR) at the end of the test with a given number of throws proves the efficiency of the cardiovascular function in the two groups. Decrease in the same heart rate after 1 min of the test proves better regeneration and reflects the improvement in the aerobic function. Limitations of this study are a small sample size and inability to evaluate physiological and biochemical features of our athletes. The data provides the judo player with information on ideal profile and where training might be directed to compensate for areas where the athlete is below average for successful judo players. A judo player who does not match the ideal profile can still succeed through improved or superior techniques and tactics.

CONCLUSION

The following conclusions can be drawn from this study: long term training has a minimal effect on anthropometry. Physical components are not discriminatory to the performance of Judo athletes. The higher the fat percentage, the lower is the performance in activities involving body displacement (negative correlation). In SJFT no significant difference was found among judo groups in the performance indicating that athletes around the same age submitted to the same training type tend to have similar performance in the test after certain years of training. Further studies with large sample size should be carried out and difference between sexes in terms of anthropometry and performance should be focused. Physiological and biochemical features which might affect performance should be studied.

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ABSTRACT

It was the aim of this study to investigate physical education undergraduate students’ views on the use of social networking, one of the most typical representations of Web 2.0 technologies. In order to do so, the researcher, who was the instructor of the class, entitled “Fair Play Education in Sport”, introduced Ning and its educational aspects to her students with a 50-minute presentation prior to the study. Following this, the students were encouraged to use this networking for 15 weeks in parallel with their class. During this application, the researcher helped the students to make the best use of Ning in educational settings. Upon the implementation, the researcher interviewed the students (n=19) in five groups on the basis of the questions prepared and piloted earlier. The interviews demonstrated that the students enjoyed using social networking in educational settings.

The findings of the study were the following: Increasing student-student and teacher-student interaction, enhancing student motivation and classroom climate, sharing materials with the instructor and students, making use of students’ interests and needs, and making learning process more interesting and permanent. The research concluded that social networking could be used in PE classes effectively.

Keywords: Web 2.0, social networking, PE students.

INTRODUCTION

Web 2.0 has been in use since Q’Reilly (2005) described it as “web-based technology that facilitates and promotes communication and sharing among others worldwide”. This two-way interaction Web 2.0 technologies provide is of great significance in education due to their open nature, ease of use and support for effective collaboration and communication (Coutinho, 2008; Gura and Percy, 2005).

The new version of Web, which differs from Web 1.0, can be very useful in contributing to the effectiveness of learning processes as long as 21^st century educators employ them effectively. Richardson (2008) offers four benefits of using these technologies in educational settings;

new opportunities for learners to take more control of their learning and access their own customized information, resources, tools and services,

an array of expressive capability,

more collaborative of working, community creation, dialogue and sharing knowledge, d) a setting for learner achievements to attract an authentic audience.

In order to address 21^st century kids, known as “digital natives” (Prensky, 2001), “Generation N” (Caldwell et al., 2006) “Net Generation” (Toman et al., 2005) “Grasshopper Mind” (Raines, 2005), it is more than a requirement that web 2.0 technologies be utilized in educational settings. As McLoughlin and Lee (2010) claim, digital-age students want an active learning experience that is social, participatory and supported by rich media. Along those lines, situated learning theory shifts the view of learning from a cognitive process to a process of participation in an emotional sense in the social world (Lave and Wenger, 1990, cited in Lave and Wenger, 1998).

This shift leads to a growing interest in the need to support and encourage learners control over the whole learning process (Dron, 2007). Siemens (2007) believes that the world is changing and schools and universities play a key role in accommodating this change by transforming learners and preparing them to function in the world that is unfolding. Several researchers (Conole and Creanor, 2007; Windham, 2005a, 2005b) report that many students today juggle work and study, expect Internet connectivity and web based services and more importantly view social networking tools as being central to their lives. Thus, teachers of these digital students need to be equipped with digital literacy to creatively integrate ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) into their courses (Silverman, 1997). Otherwise, an unfilled gap is likely to occur between teachers and their students, which may hinder the learning process.

As far as physical education is concerned, it is believed that web tools can be used by PE (Physical Education) teachers to develop their own performances and to foster students’ learning processes. Several studies looked at issues such as office applications (Güclü, 2010; Silverman, 1997; Yaman, 2007a; 2007b; 2009) multimedia software and its impact on motor skills (Mohnsen, 2008), instructional video analysis software to improve pupils’ understandings on underlying concepts and techniques (Ladda et al., 2004), effects of web technologies on students’ satisfaction (Vernadakis et al., 2012), and web developers as physical educators (Papastergiou, 2010). In a similar fashion, multimedia educational software, in Mohnsen’s research (2008), constituted an important tool which;

- helped students understand PE-related concepts,

- introduced students to motor skill techniques,

- provided simulations and practice experiences,

- supported self-paced learning and unlimited practice,

- provided immediate and constructive feedback, and

- accommodated various learning styles.

Specifically designed for primary and secondary school students, such software programmes played a key role in teaching cognitive concepts such as fitness concepts and motor skills including basketball skills (Siskos, Antoniou, Papaioannou, and Laparidis, 2005; Vernadakis et al., 2012). The results of the aforementioned two studies indicated that the software offered very promising results concerning the concepts namely fitness and motor skills.

Another area of research in the context of PE in terms of web technologies is that Internet offers numerous opportunities to remain professionally current by providing various information sources and facilities for communication with colleagues (Lazerte and Lathrop, 2006; Pennington et al., 2004; Thornburg and Hill, 2004). In line with modern learning approaches, web technologies are designed to offer constructivist-learning experiences for students.

The trend that students are encouraged to design individual projects combining various digital media and text images is existent in 21st century school environments.

According to a research study conducted in the USA, PE teachers are aware of the importance of web technologies at the service of education and pupils better understand the concepts and skills under study and critically reflect on their progress through these technologies (Mohnsen, 2008). In other words, such technologies are likely to help students evaluate the learning process, which ultimately leads them to be aware of their competencies more effectively. Despite the popularity of online technologies at the service of education, surprisingly not many studies are available in the field of physical education except a few (Ladda et al., 2004; Lazerte and Lathrop, 2006; Mohnsen, 2008; Özsoy, 2011; Pennington et al., 2004; Sezen, 2009; Silverman, 1997; Siskos et al., 2005; Papastergiou, 2010; Thornburg and Hill, 2004; Vernadakis et. al., 2012).

More specifically, the importance of social networking, one of the most striking realizations of Web 2.0 technologies, is not mostly pronounced in the studies of physical education. Web 2.0 technologies can be effectively used for PE students who receive both theoretical and applied classes. For instance, web technologies can be employed in theoretical classes like fair play education, sports philosophy and olympism where topics such as ethics, sports personship, match-fixing and aggressive behaviors are interactively discussed. These theoretical classes are very important especially in terms of increasing the quality of learning and teaching processes, and making use of recent technological innovations to capture students’ attention. In a similar vein, in online environments, current sports events can be integrated into classroom environments so as to increase the effectiveness and dynamics of the class.

This way students are encouraged to research about the topics, which is mostly related to personalized learning experiences. Thus, the use of social networking is an important component of educational processes for students. In this regard, this study aims at investigating undergraduate students’ views on the use of social networking in educational settings with a specific emphasis on Ning.

NING

Ning (http://www.ning.com), a typical social networking site, is a web-based social platform launched in 2005. As of June 2011, Ning has 65 million monthly unique visitors globally on its platform (Frommer, 2011). Ning has 90,000 customers with social websites on the Ning Platform (Geron, 2011).

Its current venue is US$30.0 million (2011 est.).

Like other social networking sites, it is a fast growing one with similar features that others offer. This site offers possibilities for is users to create their own social networks depending on their interests and favorite activities. Ning allows users to do the following actions. a) text searching, media sharing (e.g. photos, music, and videos), interaction (e.g. forum, chat, comments, blog), and content delivery (e.g. RSS feeds). One of the most crucial features of Ning is that it offers the users to customize their sites and to design the site’s appearance in light of their own purposes. The reason why Ning was chosen for this study was because it was associated with educational settings in the relevant literature.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Participants

In order to answer this research question, this study was carried out with a group of physical education undergraduate students (N= 19; F=12, M=7) in a state university in Turkey. The participating students were enrolled in the class "Fair Play Education in Sports" conducted by the researcher. The researcher opened a group in Ning, an online platform for people to create their own their own social networking. Before the semester began, the researcher gave a 50 minute-interactive presentation to introduce Ning to students so that they could be familiar with this social networking.

During the presentation, she also focused on the educational benefits of Ning giving some specific examples from the literature.

Measures

Upon the implementation, the researcher interviewed them by asking the questions prepared and piloted earlier. The interview questions went through different processes before they were used to collect the data of the study. First, fourteen questions were formulated on the basis of the learners’ experiences online. Dörnyei (2003) believes that in the process of writing questions some external feedback is indispensable especially when an initial item pool is prepared.

With this in mind, these questions were sent off to two experts on the use of web technologies in psychical education to get their suggestions for content/construct validity. In light of the suggestions made by these experts, it was decided that ten questions would be enough to use in the first place. Field-testing, which is an integral part of questions writing is “piloting the questions at various stages of their development on a sample of people who are similar to the target sample for which the questions have been asked”.

These ten questions were piloted with five students who were familiar with social networking. Fourth, after the implementation of the questions, it turned out that some interview questions were not clear enough for participants to respond properly. The questions that could be considered to be vague were removed from the list of interview questions. Fifth, there were five questions left to collect students’ views on the use of social networking in educational settings.

Finally, the researcher conducted a semi-structured interview with the participating students. After the participants were informed about the content and objectives of the study, the interviews were conducted with one participant at a time, between 40 minutes and 50 minutes. All interviews were audio taped and transcribed verbatim.

The interview sessions were completed in Turkish and in three weeks during April 2011.

Procedures

As time continued, the researcher uploaded everything related to the class she was teaching. The syllabus, class notes, exam dates, discussion questions, course content, relevant links and assignments were uploaded regularly on the website. Furthermore, the students were asked to open a personal account where they were also encouraged to upload class materials, videos, pictures, links, assignments they prepared and to comment on these materials in an interactive way. The researcher helped them whenever necessary to overcome technical difficulties.

Analysis

The analysis of qualitative data was mostly based on categorizing the data collected immediately. The qualitative data were analyzed by the researcher. The constant comparative method, which is derived from the grounded theory (Strauss and Corbin, 1990), was used in analyzing the data. Strauss and Corbin (1990) state that the constant comparison method has four distinct stages: comparing incidents applicable to each category, integrating categories and their properties, delimiting the theory, and writing the theory. In the process, the data were read until some underlying themes were discovered. These themes were transformed into the aspects, the findings of the study. The procedure was completed after validating all the data with the participants. The final step was to translate the processed and categorized data into English.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This study explored physical education undergraduate students’ views about social networking namely Ning in educational settings. Overall, it found that students mostly considered Ning as an effective educational tool. The findings of the study indicated that students’ experiences in Ning focused on two main aspects, namely; increasing student-student and teacher-student interaction on several topics like class assignments, group projects, relevant course content and examinations, and enhancing student motivation, affective learning, and classroom climate Increasing Student-Student and Teacher-Student Interaction

One of the most valuable findings of this research was that students regarded the use of social networking in educational settings as increasing student-student and teacher-student interaction.

Even though there were aspects related to this specific finding, we put related dimensions under the category of “increasing student-student and teacher-student interaction” mainly because the dimensions are more or less related to each other.

“Ning has enabled us to communicate more with the instructor at any time. I sometimes fail to understand the concepts discussed in the class. I was asking about them online. The instructor was helping me out right away” (Student B).

As easily seen in the remarks above, the use of Ning helped improve the communication between student-student and teacher-student, which is an important aspect of effective learning. In other words, the fast communication increases interaction in the form of web-based communication, which is in tune with the study of Fischman (2008). In a similar fashion, Keleş and Demirel (2011) came up with similar results in their research in that Facebook assisted course facilitated the aspects like sharing and cooperation, accessing to the lecturer, and also visualizing the course content for some students. Another important finding emanating from the research was that the use of Ning created unique opportunities for participating students to exercise situated learning as learning was viewed mostly as a process of participation in the social world. As Lave and Wenger (1991, cited in Lave and Wenger, 1998) argued, learning emerges from engagement in social interaction.

“It is possible that we continue learning more about the concepts outside the class. Thanks to Ning, specifically videos and posts, we were given a chance at interacting with each other to take a deeper understanding of the related concepts” (Student A).

The concepts such as community of learners, community of inquiry, learning community and community knowledge were very related to students’ comments. As is seen above, the participating students were involved in a social interaction surrounding them in a constructive sense. Furthermore, the social networking served as a platform where students could easily exchange their ideas, assignments or projects at ease. As Selwyn (2007a, 2007b) puts it, social networking provides meaningful contexts for learning to take place.

That is to say, Ning helped the instructor connect with her students about assignment, upcoming events, useful links and samples of work outside the classroom.

“It was pretty feasible to exchange documents online. More importantly, when I found something I thought useful and interesting for my classmates, I posted it online so that they could view it. Later on, we exchanged our ideas about the issue” (StudentC).

This statement is highly related to the concept of social interaction (Vygotsky, 1978).

The concept of social web is commonly linked to and supported by applications of social media that are designed for social interaction and information exchange. In this particular regard, the success of social networking rests on how well students are socially connected to each other. Yet another crucial aspect of social networking in educational settings is that it has the capacity to enable peer-feedback as expressed by Mason and Rennie (2007).

More specifically, the students were giving feedback to each other’s work very effectively through Ning. When a student posts on any assignment, his/her classmates comment on the work in question. This obviously triggers the collaboration among peers, which is in line with the principles of cooperative learning.

This finding is related to the assumption that social networking is being considered as an educational tool because of its beneficial qualities such as peer-feedback, goodness of fit and interaction.

“I was able to reach the class notes very easily. In the other classes,

I have a difficult in reaching class notes. I have to photocopy them, which takes a lot longer than I think. Ning, however, allows me to reach the class materials at ease (Student D).”

Ning, in this study, helped students reach any kind class materials very easily, which could also be considered to be a motivating factor. That is to say, the students reported that like all social networking sites, Ning was very influential in offering great opportunities for students to get the materials related to specific class. This is a very important finding because 21st century kids should be allowed to exchange the information easily and fast (Gross and Acquisti, 2005; Hewitt and Forte, 2006).

Likewise, Russo, Watkins, and Groundwater- Smith (2009) also related social networking in CoPs (Community of Practices) to informal learning. They posited that social media played a central role in creating knowledge-sharing experiences in informal settings.

Enhancing Student Motivation, And Classroom Climate

In the 21^st century, the understanding of learning has gone through several alterations in line with the changing landscapes of educational actions. Situated learning theory which shifts the view of learning from a cognitive process to a process of participation in the social world recommends that students be involved in a learning environment where they are motivated to take actions to learn. As Campbell (2006) puts it, learning ecologies created great opportunities for students to increase their motivation. In this regard, the 21st century students can be more motivated to learn specifically when their interests and learning go hand in hand. In other words, if students’ daily activities are reflected in their learning processes, it is likely that the learning process will be actualized at the very best level. Educators are under obligation to know what is going on in their own lives so that they can create learning ecologies accordingly. The participating students had the following views regarding the motivation Ning offered/provided.

“It is a great thing to use Ning in educational settings. It is not what we used to do in the past. Paper documents! Ning is easier and more interesting, I think. More importantly, I have a Facebook account. I use something like Facebook (Ning) for educational purposes” (Student G).

The students were of the opinion that using social networking played a key role in motivating them to learn more about the content itself. This is mainly because they really enjoyed being online in Ning discussing several issues related to the course. As Prensky (2001) claims, students’ interests should be reflected in learning processes, which will pave the way for the development of learning skills. Ajjan and Harsthone(2008) presented very similar benefits of social networking sites in educational settings. First, it increases students’ learning to a great extent.

Second, it facilitates interaction between the teacher-students, and students-students.

Third, it makes students more motivated for the classes.

Fourth, it develops students’ writing skills. Finally, it makes easier for students to get involved in the learning process.

As is easily seen, the findings of the current research are very in tune with those of several studies (Norris, 2002; Resnick, 2001; Wellman, Hasse, Witte, and Hampton, 2001). Thus, using social networks in an academic context is attractive for undergraduate students. Students will be given a chance to acquire new knowledge through subliminal, effective and smooth learning processes while taking part in enjoyable interactive situations mediated through interesting and motivating tools and content (Gillet, El Helou, Yu, and Salzmann, 2008).

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

This study set out to investigate the physical education undergraduate students' experiences with and views on the integration of social networking sites in the examined courses. The interview results indicate that participating students find the use of social networking namely Ning very useful specifically in terms of two topics like class assignments, group projects, relevant course content and examinations, and 2) enhancing student motivation, and classroom climate. The findings are in tune with those of relevant studies in the literature (Ajjan and

Harsthone, 2008; Rebecca et al., Selwyn, 2007a).

The findings are highly critical mainly because there are not many studies available in the area of physical education and PE teachers’ or student teachers’ perspectives on the use of social networking in educational settings. On the whole, student teachers seemed to feel that Ning should be employed in educational settings due to following reasons. First, Ning offer great opportunities for students and teacher to interact with each other in a social manner. Second, it allows students to reach the class content and materials posted very easily online. Third, it encourages students to share their assignments and projects with each other.

Fourth, it offers a platform where students and teacher can discuss the relevant topics and give feedback to each other’s work.

Fifth, it enables students to focus on the class materials outside the classroom, which is closely linked to independent learning.

Finally, it increases students’ motivation to do more research about the topics in question. Therefore, social networking plays a salient role in reaching students and developing student teachers’ experiences with web technologies by offering more opportunities for greater motivation, negotiation and decision-making. In light of the findings gathered from the students, it turned out that they did not have any negative opinions about the use of social networking. Rather, they believed that social networking could contribute to the effectiveness of learning/teaching processes. A social networking account for a specific class is believed to offer great opportunities in the following way:

- It keeps students motivated for the class.

- It serves a platform where students are encouraged to discuss the relevant issues.

- It keeps the content updated at any time.

- It enables students to pose questions about the class content and to receive responses at once.

These opportunities are so striking that teachers and students are under pressure to make use of social networking in educational settings. On the basis of the findings of this research study, the following points should be considered seriously in educational settings.

In order to attract the attention of PE students, sports events may be posted online so that a discussion forum can be created to keep the topic updated, which fosters the acquisition of relevant topics.

These social networking sites can also be used for practice classes. For instance, social networking can be used while teaching how to teach volleyball and basketball.

More specifically, students can be recorded when they are teaching these skills and these recordings can be shared on these social networking sites in order for them to give feedback to each other’s performances.

Read the article.

ПРИЛОЖЕНИЯ

APPENDIX 1

USEFUL VOCABULARY

Below you will find a wide range of expressions, word combinations, phrases, and speech patterns, actively used in English to structure a scientific paper: to state a problem, introduce material and methods of investigation, when reviewing, citing or commenting on the pertinent literature, describing and explaining experimental data, drawing conclusions and outlining perspectives, etc.

Introduction

General remarks

The subject (matter) of the paper/ study / analysis / research /discussion is…

The present paper /investigation focuses on /deals with…

is devoted to the question /problem /issue of…

undertakes to survey /identify the structure of…

considers what factors/ processes influence…

In this article the author aims to determine /attempts to explain the mechanisms of..

is intended to give/ show/ develop/ provide/ record…

examines the nature/ characteristics/ features/ functions of...

concentrates on/ argue that/ review…

turns to examples of…

Summary lead

The structure of the article is as follows. The first part reviews/ describes/ clarifies/ outlines/ sketches… Part two portrays/ dwells on/ enlarges upon/ shows that… Part three argues that… The final part proposes/ summarizes/ spells out in detail…

In this article the author reviews/ debates the problem (and advantages) of… and argues that… He claims/ demonstrates/ suggests that (insufficient attention has been paid to)… In particular, the author shows that…

In this article, the author attempts to clarify the relation of… and … To do so, he first presents… He then attempts to show that… In conclusion … is considered.

This paper presents a new (complex/ algorithmic/ structural) approach to the study of… The empirical results are described in part one. In part two, the author addresses/ discusses/ characterizes/ comments on/ specifies… Part three turns to…/ presents theoretical results. Part four concludes with a discussion of implications/ consequences of…

This article proposes a new methodological framework within which … can be studied. After analyzing the data, it is concluded that… The results of the study are evaluated and assessed in the light of the problems of… Additionally, … is examined.

Positive comments

The author’s investigation is an accurate/ comprehensive/ convincing analysis of..

is a profound/ thorough description of…

supports the theory of…

The author’s study/ analysis sheds new light on…

The author’s theory/ proposal sounds attractive/ is elegant.

proved to be successful.

The author’s approach is quite/ highly creative/ effective/ fruitful/ innovative/

sophisticated/ sound.

The author offers in depth discussions on topics involving…

The article opens prospects for further study of…/casts a new light on the question.

Gives rise to theoretical discussion/ provokes reflection.

Criticism and objections

The author’s hypothesis leaves many questions open.

The author’s investigation generates controversy/ is a hot topic in debates.

The author’s method is far from a solution.

The author’s approach/ strategy has a number of disadvantages.

Data analysis

The author’s description rests on evidence obtained experimentally.

The author’s analysis rests on evidence available from biology.

Conclusion

In conclusion it may be said that…

To conclude, the author has explored…

Finally, the author turns to…/ notes that…

The author’s conclusion focuses on the fact that…

To summarize/ In summary/ To sum up…

The major points covered by this paper can be summarized as follows…

Now we can conclude that…

In general/ On the whole/ Thus, the results gained by the author indicate that…

The author’s theorizing shows that…

The main findings of this study reveal/ show how systematic these phenomena can be.

Prospects and applications

The conclusions of the study reveal that…

The author has succeeded in actually showing that…

The results gained by the author highlight the potential of the technique described.

can be directly applied to the process of…

can enrich scientific knowledge in…

become most significant innovation in P…

bring about improvements in…

can find fruitful application

can bring economic profits.

These findings may be of considerable practical value.

The technique suggested by the author can be applied directly/ gradually/ partially.

In future it will be possible to use the method/ approach/ technique suggested…

to put theory into practice.

APPENDIX 2

SAMPLE ANNOTATIONS

· Garver, Wayne; Moss, Frank. “Detecting signals with noise”: Garver and Moss describe two experiments demonstrating the utility of noise in bringing out an electronic signal and the possible extraction of data from background noise. The construction of the experiments and the likely results are discussed.

· Davies-Jones, Robert. «Tornadoes»: Although much has been discovered about the behavior and origins of tornadoes, many mysteries still remain about how these violent storms form. Davies-Jones explores the many different forms of tornadoes and the devastation that they can create.

· Jamison, Kay Redfield. “Manic-depressive illness and creativity”: Recent studies have shown a link between creativity and mood disorders such as manic-depressive illness and major depression. The connection is examined, and the cases of Lord Tennyson, Vincent van Gogh and Robert Schumann are highlighted.

· Schattschneider, Doris. «Escher's metaphors»: Although M.C. Escher claimed to know little about mathematics, his drawings reveal a keen instinctive grasp of infinity, symmetry and other mathematical principles. His work is examined.

· McCloskey, Donald. «An economic uncertainty principle”: Economists claim to know the next month's interest rates, yet they are not rich. Their claim is also a claim that others in the market do not know the future of the interest rates. The economic uncertainty principle is examined.

· Newman, Jack. «How breast milk protects newborns”: Some of the molecules and cells in human milk actively help infants stave off infection. The way in which breast milk helps protect newborns from disease is detailed.

· Nemecek, Sasha. “Transforming Hyde into Jekyll”: Recent research in tissue engineering indicates that patients could eventually receive heart valves grown from their own cells. The advantages of engineered valves are detailed.

· Nowak, Martin A.; McMichael, Andrew J. “How HIV defeats the immune system”: Nowak and McMichael propose that HIV replicates prodigiously, enough to cause the severe immune impairment that defines full-blown AIDS. The process by which HIV escapes the control of the immune system, signaling the onset of AIDS, is described.

· Iovine, John. “Genetically altering Escherichia coli”: An experiment in which three types of recombinant plasmids are constructed and then injected into Escherichia coli is described. In this experiment, resistance for ampicillin, for kanamycin and for both ampicillin and kanamycin to the bacterium is studied.

· Ross, Marc; DeCicco, John. “Measuring the energy drain on your car”: A method for measuring the friction that hurts a car's efficiency is explained. Rolling resistance and engine drag can be found by pulling a car with a rope attached to a spring scale.

· Dragovan, Mark. “Making a mirror by spinning a liquid”: Instructions of how to build a telescope mirror by spinning a liquid are offered.

· Hiller, Robert A. et at. “Producing light from a bubble of air”: Instructions for turning sound into light through a process called sonoluminescence are offered. Light can be produced from a bubble of air using an oscilloscope, a sound generator, a home stereo amplifier and about $100 worth of equipment.

· Stewart, Jan. «The never-ending chess game»: A hypothetical chess game that goes on forever without checkmate and without repeating the same sequence of moves three times in a row is presented.

APPENDIX 3

SAMPLE TEXT WITH ANNOTATION

Annotation: “ Some Challenges to Implementing the Project Approach” discusses the difficulties that teachers may face while using projects in their classroom practice. Planning is stated as the main challenge. The author explains why planning project work can be difficult and states the difference between teachers new to the Project Approach and experienced practitioners. Some recommendations on planning and carrying out projects are also given.

Unlike more traditional models of direct instruction, which may suggest a teacher's script, or offer a list of activities and worksheets for a typical plan-teach-review-test format, there is "no single way to incorporate project work into a curriculum or teaching style" (Katz & Chard, 2000). It is up to each teacher to decide how much of the school day will be devoted to project work and how it best fits into the context of classroom constraints and the teacher's preferences.

Projects are easier for some teachers to implement than for others for a variety of reasons. These individual differences may be related to teachers' prior teaching philosophies, practices, and experiences, or to institutional, collegial, or administrative contexts in which they work.

Furthermore, even though project work is organized around a three-phase structure of investigation, representation, and culmination, there are no specific directions to use such as a teacher's manual or a guide for writing lesson plans. If a teacher uses the language associated with the typical lesson plan required for teacher-generated activities, this practice may serve as an indication that she has not yet developed a full understanding of the processes involved in project work.

The preliminary planning that accompanies much successful project work involves the preparation of the mind of the teacher for the possibilities that could arise from the children's study of the topic. It is not the kind of objectives-driven planning that characterizes much direct instruction, where the objectives can be operationalized and pre-specified in considerable detail. Instead, planning for project work involves the imaginative anticipation of the prior experience level of interest that might reasonably be expected from a given class of children.

For teachers new to the Project Approach, thinking about how to plan for a project to unfold may seem difficult. The role of the teacher can appear to be obscure to the novice. Not only must the teacher become an imaginative anticipator of the work to be accomplished, but she must also learn to become a facilitator of the understandings to be gained by the children.

More-experienced practitioners know how to foster children's dispositions to wonder and ask questions, how to nurture children's dispositions to take initiative in planning and carrying out inquiries, and how to negotiate with children so that each child takes responsibility for what she or he does and learns. However, learning how to conduct this type of project work is a developmental process for both the teacher and the children. The teacher must find ways to encourage the children to become independent workers by having them decide what they will attempt to accomplish each day during the time set aside for project work. The teacher also must plan for where her assistance is most needed for the day.

Teachers with more experience with using the Project Approach typically report that projects take on a life of their own. Perhaps this is a sign that they have come to respect the children's interests, motivation, and curiosity—that they recognize the value of engagement for children's learning. Perhaps this is a testament to their skillfulness in guiding children through meaningful investigations and representations during the course of the project. Certainly, skillful guidance on the part of the teacher indicates a deeper understanding of the dynamic processes involved in good project work. However, how does a teacher learn how to conduct this kind of good project work?

APPENDIX 4

Ссылка на статью:

http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/arts-and-entertainment/art-culture/Ancient-Japanese-Art-of-Origami-Thriving-in-San-Francisco-88230457.html

1) Итак, статья взята из раздела Art and Culture. Статья называется «Ancient Japanese Art of Origami Thriving in San Francisco».

2) Теперь бегло читаем текст и определяем основную мысль текста. В статье говорится о нарастающей популярности древнего японского искусства оригами. Можно сделать вывод, что автор восхищается способностями художников, работающих в технике оригами, поэтому использует слова, акцентирующие наше внимание на красоте этого искусства. (На этой стадии написания резюме в глаза бросаются следующие слова: thriving , pursue , inspire , amazing , create , great response , spur , passion).

3) Далее обращаем внимание на ключевые слова: art, origami models, work, create, important. Не стоит забывать и слова, отмеченные в предыдущем пункте.

На наш взгляд, самое первое предложение более полно отражает смысл статьи:«The ancient Japanese art of origami – or paper folding – is thriving today in San Francisco – thanks largely to an American scientist». Необходимо отметить важность последнего предложения «They are now hoping to one day do the first ever origami movie», так как оно может послужить неким итогом статьи. Оно, несомненно, пригодится нам для резюме.

4) Данная статья разделена на абзацы, но некоторые из них можно объединить и составить символичный план статьи (здесь учитываем скорее не объем частей статьи, а их смысловую независимость друг от друга):

– популярность оригами

– Роберт Ланг решил не расставаться со своим детским увлечением

– Ланга привлекает возможность создавать нечто из ненужной бумаги

– Бросив успешную работу, Ланг начинает профессионально заниматься оригами

– Ланг создает бумажные фигурки из всего, что попадает ему в руки, даже из долларовых банкнот.

– Бумага сама подсказывает ему, что из нее должно получиться.

– За время своей усиленной работы Лангу удалось создать множество авторских фигурок животных, не существовавших до него.

– В Сан-Франциско есть много художников японского происхождения, работающих в технике оригами. Линда Томоко Михара – одна из них.

– Линда рассказывает о японских традициях оригами.

– Линда и Роберт работали вместе над созданием фигурок оригами для 3D-анимации.

– Этот проект оказался очень успешным и вдохновил художников на дальнейшую работу. Они надеются однажды сделать фильм, в котором были бы задействованы фигурки оригами.

Нужно помнить, что это лишь план.

Теперь выберем из каждой части по одному ключевому предложению:

The ancient Japanese art of origami – or paper folding – is thriving today in San Francisco – thanks largely to an American scientist.

Most people give up those kinds of hobbies once they grow up, but not Robert Lang.

...you can make something with found materials, cheap paper, scraps, even trash...

Eight years ago he gave up his job to pursue origami, making him one of the few professional origami artists in the country.

Under his expert hands, paper of almost any type, stiffness or thickness can be turned into a work of art.

...the paper itself suggested what the best subject was...

Lang has played an important role in origami's evolution.

...I'm inspired by the real thing...

San Francisco's Japantown is home to some origami masters, including Linda Tomoko Mihara.

She is famous for her origami cranes, which once played an important role in Japanese culture.

She and Lang have worked together. They once created all the origami models for a 3D animated commercial.

Everything you saw in that commercial except the car was origami.

They are now hoping to one day do the first-ever origami movie.

5) Попробуем выразить смысл всей статьи в одном предложении. Получается вот что: The article describes growing popularity of origami in San Francisco. Заготовим резюме каждого абзаца, не забывая, что намеренно опускаем все детали, всю лишнюю информацию, оставляя лишь самое важное. Таким образом, получаем следующие заготовки:

APPENDIX 5

SOME TIPS ON REVIEW WRITING

Размер рецензии зависит от объема, содержания и значимости рецензируемой работы. В рецензиях всегда присутствует субъективно-оценочный элемент и поэтому они весьма разнообразны по стилю и построению. Но, тем не менее, некоторые элементы рецензии можно считать обязательными, хотя их последовательность далеко не всегда одинакова.

ОСНОВНЫЕ РАЗДЕЛЫ РЕЦЕНЗИИ

1. Характеристика работы. (Описание того, что собой представляет работа.)

2. Структура работы. (Построение по разделам и главам и их содержание.)

3. Историческая справка. Выходные данные.

4. Основные достоинства и недостатки.

5. Оценка работы. Рекомендации. Заключение.

Построение абзацев достаточно стандартно. В них перемежаются простые и распространенные предложения.

Временная форма сказуемого, как правило, Present Indefinite. Преобладает действительный залог.

I. ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКА И ОПИСАНИЕ РАБОТЫ

Чтобы охарактеризовать работу, т. е. описать предмет исследования, основную цель, принципы, положенные в основу данной работы, расположение материала и пр., пользуйтесь следующими существительными, глаголами и сочетаниями: book, work, paper – книга, работа, научная статья; monograph, review – монография, обзорная работа (обозрение); content – содержание; material – материал (содержание работы); the book under review – рассматриваемая (рецензируемая) книга; the book constitutes, comprises, deals with, treats, discusses, presents, summarizes – книга представляет собой, включает, касается, затрагивает, суммирует (обобщает); be given, be presented (material) – (материал) подан, представлен; be devoted, be referred to – (книга) посвящена, относится к... be emphasized – подчеркивается.

Примеры:

1. Книга представляет собой критический обзор…	The book constitutes а critical review of…
2. Особенно подчеркивается экологический принцип.	Ecological principles are especially emphasized.
3. Работа анализирует и обобщает сведения по…	The work treats and summarizes the knowledge on…
4. Информация подается как часть единого целого.	The information is given as part of synthetic whole.

II. СТРУКТУРА РАБОТЫ. ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКА ПОСТРОЕНИЯ КНИГИ И ЕЕ РАЗДЕЛОВ

Говоря о структуре работы, нужно знать такие существительные, как: volume – том; part – часть; chapter – глава; section – раздел; paragraph – параграф, абзац; illustrations – рисунки, пояснения; references – ссылки; list of literature – список литературы.

Наиболее употребительные глаголы: constitute – представлять собой; comprise – состоять (из); cover – охватывать, занимать; analyse, deal with, treat – анализировать, рассматривать, затрагивать; give, present – подавать, представлять (материал); reflect, illustrate – отражать, иллюстрировать; arrange – располагать, классифицировать (материал); be followed – следовать (за), сопровождаться; book comprises – книга состоит из, включает.

Примечание. Следует помнить, что порядковым числительным и прилагательным last, final всегда предшествует определенный артикль: the first, the second, the third, the fifth, the last (final) – первый, второй, третий, пятый, последний.

Примеры:

1. Книга состоит из четырех частей.	The book comprises four parts.
2. В последнем разделе книги обсуждается…	The final section of the book discusses…
3. Монография охватывает большой материал по…	The monograph covers large information on…
4. За введением следуют (идут) главы, посвященные…	Introduction is followed by the chapters devoted to…

Примечание. Для передачи русского понятия «состоять из» можно пользоваться английским глаголом “to comprise” как в действительном, так и в страдательном залоге.

The book comprises two parts. The book is comprised of two parts.

Книга состоит из двух частей.

III. ВВОДНАЯ ЧАСТЬ. ИСТОРИЧЕСКАЯ СПРАВКА. ВЫХОДНЫЕ ДАННЫЕ

Лексико-синтаксические структуры, используемые авторами рецензий в вводной части, чрезвычайно разнообразны. Все зависит от рецензируемой работы и задачи рецензента.

В исторической справке речь обычно идет о годе публикации, о причинах публикации или переиздания, о своевременности опубликования работы и т. п.

Для этого могут понадобиться следующие слова и сочетания слов:

the book (the work, the paper) under review – рассматриваемая, рецензируемая книга (работа); the first (the second etc.) edition – первое (второе и т. д.) издание; content – содержание; publication – опубликование (издание); reason – причина; the main reason (why, of, for) – основная причина того, что (почему, для чего), именно поэтому; achievement – достижение, событие; revision – переработка, изменение; attempt – попытка, make an attempt – пытаться, стараться; discuss, explore, handle – рассматривать, обсуждать; mention – упоминать; publish – публиковать, издавать; undertake – предпринимать; witness – свидетельствовать; revise – пересматривать, исправлять, перерабатывать, revised and completed – исправленное и дополненное.

Keep (bear) in mind – помнить; to mention just a few... – приводя (упоминая) только несколько...; to welcome – всячески приветствовать; to appear in print – выходить из печати; recently, lately – за последнее время; the last few decades (months, years) – (за) последние десятилетия (месяцы, годы).

Примеры:

1. За последние десятилетия возросло значение…	The last few decades have witnessed an increase of importance...
2. Во втором издании авторы значительно переработали и дополнили (монографию).	The authors undertook the complete revision of the second edition.
3. Рассматриваемая работа является выдающимся достижением в области…	The work under review is an outstanding achievement in the field of…
4. Следует иметь в виду необычайную историю этой книги.	The peculiar history of the book should be born in mind.
5. Хотя книга датирована 1985 годом, она вышла из печати (была опубликована) в 1986 году.	Although the publication date is 1985, the book appeared in print in 1986.

IV. ОСНОВНЫЕ ДОСТОИНСТВА И НЕДОСТАТКИ РАБОТЫ

Обсуждение достоинств и недостатков любой работы неизбежно связано с субъективной оценкой автора рецензии. Однако лексико-синтаксические клише здесь достаточно определенны.

1. ДОСТОИНСТВА

Advantages – преимущества, достоинства, merits – достоинства; achievement – достижение; contribution – вклад; grasp – обзор, охват, понимание; coverage – объем, охват; depth – глубина; foundation – основа, обоснование; considerations – сображения, выводы; success – успех; survey – обзор, анализ; treatment – анализ, разбор, рассмотрение; starting point — исходный момент, начало.

Contain – содержать, включать (в себя); deal with, survey, treat – рассматривать, разбирать, исследовать.

Adequate – точный; clear – четкий; comprehensive – полный, исчерпывающий; exclusive – исключительный, уникальный; deep – глубокий; original – оригинальный, самостоятельный, первый (в данной области); profound – глубокий, вдумчивый; rich – богатый (по содержанию), глубокий; successful – успешный; various – разнообразный; up-to-date – современный.

Extensive cover of (literature, material) – широкий охват, исчерпывающий; a great variety of – большое разнообразие, множество; a wide and intelligent grasp of – обширный, проницательный критический обзор ... at the high level – на высоком уровне; in addition to, besides – помимо (того), кроме.

Примеры:

1. Благодаря оригинальному материалу и богатому содержанию этих глав, они читаются с большим интересом.	The chapters provide interesting reading due to the original approach and rich contents.
2. (В этой главе) должное внимание обращено на электронно-микроскопические данные.	The due regards are given to results obtained with electron microscopy.
3. Основная ценность этой работы (заключается) в очень глубоком анализе экспериментального материала.	The main achievement of the work lies in a very profound treatment of the experimental material.
4. Удачно представлены морфологические данные.	The presentation of morphological evidence is usually successful.
5. Книга охватывает весьма обширный материал.	The coverage of the book is extremely wide.

2. НЕДОСТАТКИ . ЗАМЕЧАНИЯ

Disadvantages, shortcomings – недостатки; mistakes – ошибки; misprints – опечатки; misspells – описки; errors – ошибки, заблуждения (в научном смысле); lapses – ошибки, описки, ляпсусы; omission – пропуск, упущение; feature – характерная черта; references – ссылки (на авторов, литературу).

Mention – упоминать; refer – упоминать, ссылаться; replace – заменять, замещать; retrieve (information) – извлекать, получать; illustrate – подтверждать, иллюстрировать; give consideration to – принимать во внимание.

Difficult – трудный; disappointing – разочаровывающий, вызывающий разочарование; erroneous – ошибочный; generalized – обобщенный; inadequate – несоответственный, неточный, не отвечающий требованиям; outdated – устаревший, несовременный; regretful – вызывающий сожаление; scares – редкие, малое количество; unpardonable – непростительный; unfortunately, regretfully – к сожалению; it is to be regretted – остается пожалеть, можно пожалеть.

Примеры:

1. Информация, касающаяся этого вопроса, – ошибочна.	The information concerning the problem is erroneous.
2. Некоторые ссылки даны на уже устаревшие источники.	A few of the references are given to the long out dated publications.
3. Вызывает разочарование отсутствие теоретических положений, по-видимому, автора больше интересуют практические вопросы.	The absence of theoretical treatment is disappointing, apparently practical, matters are of more interest for the author.
4. Непростительны многочисленные опечатки и ошибки в тексте, которые могут привести к искажению смысла.	Unpardonable are numerous misprints and mistakes which can bring to the erroneous understanding.

V. ОЦЕНКА РАБОТЫ, РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ. ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ

В обычной рецензии заключительный абзац или предложение включает оценку и иногда рекомендации. Для заключения авторы рецензий чаще всего пользуются общепринятыми штампами типа:

in conclusion – в заключение, it can be said – можно сказать;

it can be highly recommended – можно с уверенностью рекомендовать;

it is an outstanding event (achievement) – это выдающееся событие (достижение);

it is to be warmly welcomed – нужно всячески (горячо) приветствовать;

in spite of (minor faults) it should be recommended – несмотря на (мелкие погрешности), она должна (может) быть рекомендована;

valuable as it is to ... it is of even greater value to... – при всей своей ценности для... она представляет еще большую ценность (значение) для...

an invaluable aspect of the book is... – неоценимое значение книги в том, что...

incidental (mistakes) in no way prevent... – случайные (ошибки) никоим образом не мешают (не умаляют)...

Примеры:

1. Однако все эти ошибки и недостатки случайны и никоим образом не умаляют достоинства работы.	Such mistakes and omissions are, however, incidental and in n о way prevent the book being a most stimulating and useful.
2. Нужно приветствовать любую попытку продолжить исследование.	Any attempt to continue the investigation is to be warmly welcomed.
3. Рецензируемая работа является выдающимся событием этого года.	The work under review is an out standing achievement of the year.

SAMPLE REVIEW

Author: Diane Ravitch

Year of Publication: 2010

APPENDIX 6

SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION

Дефисное написание слов

Через дефис пишутся сложные прилагательные и сложные наречия (кроме наречий на –ly), стоящие перед существительным; составные числительные, дробные числительные, записанные словами; приставки перед именами собственными; приставки на – i и – a, если корень начинается с той же буквы; приставка ex-, приставка re-, если слитное написание приводит к смешению слов; слова, начинающиеся с self (кроме selfish и selfless):

friendly-looking man (сложное прилагательное);

friendly little girl (отдельные прилагательные);

brightly lit room (наречие и прилагательное);

un-American;

semi-invalid;

self-assured;

self-respect.

He got a much-needed haircut yesterday.

His haircut was much needed.

Only twenty-one of the children were bilingual.

You need one-third of a cup of sugar for that recipe.

His ex-wife sued for nonsupport.

Will she recover from her illness?(приставка не имеет значения «снова»).

I have re-covered the sofa twice.

Написание числительных

1. Числительные до 9 пишутся прописью, после 9 цифрами. При наличии числительных обоих возможен любой единообразный вариант:

I want five copies.

I want 10 copies.

2. Простые дроби пишутся словами через дефис:

A two-thirds majority is required for that bill to pass in Congress.

3. Смешанные дроби пишутся цифрами, если не являются первым словом в предложении:

We expect a 5 1/2 percent wage increase.

Five and one-half percent was the maximum allowable interest.

4. Большие числа передаются словами или сочетанием цифр и слов hundred, million, billion единообразно для всего предложения.

You can earn from five hundred to five million dollars.

You can earn from $5 hundred to $5 million.

5. Десятичные дроби пишутся цифрами:

The plant grew 0.79 of a foot in one year.

6. Даты передаются на письме следующим образом:

The meeting is scheduled for June 30.

The meeting is scheduled for the 30th of June.

We have had tricks played on us on April 1.

The 1st of April puts some people on edge.

Написание наречий

1. Наречия обычно образуются от прилагательных путем прибавления окончания –ly:

slow – slowly (медленный – медленно);

real – really (действительный - действительно);

right – rightly (правильный – правильно);

careful – carefully (внимательный – внимательно);

beautiful – beautifully (красивый – красиво);

complete – completely (полный – полностью);

hopeful – hopefully (надеющийся – с надеждой).

Однако из этого правила есть несколько исключений:

true – truly (истинный – истинно);

due – duly (должный – должным образом) whole – wholly (целый – целиком).

2. При образовании наречий от прилагательных, которые оканчиваются на –y, буква "y" заменяется на "i":

happy – happily (счастливый – счастливо);

easy – easily (легкий – легко);

dry – drily (сухой – сухо).

Исключения:

shy – shyly (застенчивый – застенчиво);

sly – slyly (хитрый – хитро);

coy – coyly (скромный – скромно).

3. При образовании наречий от прилагательных, которые оканчиваются на –le, перед которой следует согласная, окончание "le" заменяется на "ly":

idle – idly (ленивый – лениво);

noble – nobly (благородный – благородно);

able – ably (умелый – умело).

4. При образовании наречий от прилагательных, которые оканчиваются на –ic, окончание "ic" заменяется на "ically":

tragic – tragically (трагический – трагически);

ironic – ironically (иронический – с иронией);

phonetic – phonetically (фонетический – фонетически).

Исключение:

public – publicly (публичный – публично).

Semicolon – Точка с запятой

Точка с запятой чаще всего используется в официальной письменной речи, в которой много длинных предложений и синтаксически сложных конструкций.

1. Используйте точку с запятой, чтобы разделить простые предложения в составе бессоюзного сложносочиненного предложения:

Injustice is relatively easy to bear; what stings is justice.

H. L. Mencken.

2. Точка с запятой, а не запятая, необходима для разделения таких простых предложений в составе бессоюзного сложносочинённого предложения, которые содержат однородные члены, вводные фразы и другие элементы, которые могут выделяться запятыми:

In 1800, a traveler needed six weeks to get from New York City to Chicago; in 1860, the trip by railroad took two days.

3. Точка с запятой, а не запятая, используется также при наличии таких соединительных слов: accordingly, also, anyway, besides, certainly, consequently, conversely, finally, furthermore, hence, however, incidentally, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, otherwise, similarly, specifically, still, subsequently, therefore, thus.

4. Точка с запятой нужна и при наличии в сложносочинённом предложении таких соединительных фраз: after all, as a matter of fact, as a result, at any rate, at the same time, even so, for example, for instance, in addition, in conclusion, in fact, in other words, in the first place, on the contrary, on the other hand.

Wild bears don’t attack people; in fact, every bear having attacked a man was somehow provoked.

On the one hand, living in the city increases your opportunities; on the other hand, it can be rather stressful.

Colon – Двоеточие

1. Двоеточие употребляется перед перечислением и разъяснением. Если после двоеточия следует полное предложение, то первое слово такого предложения пишется с заглавной буквы:

Breakfast: Picking up the remaining chicken bite from the sofa. Knock it onto the carpet and bat it under the television set.

Примечание: Если список перечисленных пунктов расположен в столбик, каждая новая строка должна начинаться с заглавной буквы, после каждого пункта знак препинания не ставится.

2. Двоеточие употребляется перед цитатой или длинным текстом прямой речи:

The Government declared: "This decision will be taken on the 1st of October…”

Dashes – Тире

1. Тире ставится перед перечислением однородных членов, с обобщающим словом:

We bought some new crockery – cups, saucers, plates, dishes.

2. Тире чаще употребляется в неформальном письме, чем в официальных публикациях. Многие ставят его вместо двоеточия или точки с запятой.

3. Неожиданное, но необходимое объяснение посреди предложения может выделяться с двух сторон тире или скобками:

But he – Susan’s brother – was not even able to drive a car.

4. Если к предложению дописывают добавочную мысль, суждение, то употребляется тире:

She will do that by Friday – at least, she said so.

5. Для обозначения незаконченной речи также обычно употребляется тире, в отличие от русского, где употребляется многоточие:

If you take my advice –

Apostrophe – Апостроф

1. Апостроф пишется во всех случаях использования притяжательного падежа:

mother ' s hat

students ' books

Примечание: при образовании притяжательного падежа от имен собственных, заканчивающихся буквой -s, можно использовать оба варианта:

King Charles's crown / King Charles' crown

2. Апостроф используется для обозначения пропущенных букв или цифр:

I ' m

he ' s

'87

don ' t

3. Апостроф используется для обозначения множественного числа букв или аббревиатур:

VIP's

I can't distinguish his L's.

Parentheses – Скобки

1. В скобки заключаются слова или числа, несущие пояснительную информацию (примечания).

He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that he did not understand the question.

2. В скобки заключаются числа при перечислении:

We need an emergency room physician who can (1) think quickly, (2) treat patients respectfully, and (3) handle complaints from the public.

3. Точка ставится внутри скобок, если в скобки заключено целое предложение:

Please read the analysis (I enclosed it as Attachment A.).

Please read the analysis. (I enclosed it as Attachment A.)

Please read the analysis (Attachment A).

Прописные буквы

Использование прописных букв в английском языке подчиняется несколько иным правилам, чем в русском.

С прописных букв в английском языке пишутся:

1. Первое слово предложения.

2. Цитата внутри предложения (God said, Let there be light. – Gen. 1:3).

3. Прямой вопрос внутри предложения, даже если он не выделяется кавычками (Не usually asks himself, Am 1 right?).

4. Личное местоимение я (Не and I disagree).

5. Имена собственные: фамилии, имена, географические названия (Adamson, Chapman, John, Mary, Washington, New York).

6. Прилагательные и другие части речи, образованные от имен собственных (English, Russian, American, Americanism, New-Yorky). Ср., однако, глагол anglicize.

7. Названия народов, рас, племен и языков (Japanese, Russians, the Russian language).

8. Звания, титулы, должности (Queen Elizabeth, President Clinton, Mr. President, Your Honor, U. S. Minister Kevin Nicholson, Associate Professor John Robinson, Chief Engineer Leonard Cole-man, General Manager Tom Jones).

9. Официальные названия национальных/ международных государственных/частных организаций и документов (The Constitution of the United States, the Fifth Congress, Federal Reserve Bank, Charter of the United Nations).

10. Существительные (и часто прилагательные), относящиеся к понятию божества (God, the Almighty, Allah, Providence, Lord).

11. Названия дней недели, месяцев, праздников (Monday, March, New Year, Christmas, Fourth of July, Good Friday).

12. Названия договоров, государственных актов, исторических событий, эпох, войн (Versailles Treaty, Middle Ages, the Civil War, War of 1812).

13. Названия стран света и их производные (the North, a Northerner).

14. Названия литературных произведений, журналов, статей и т.п. (Shakespeare's Macbeth, the Journal of the American Medical Association). При этом служебные части речи (артикли, союзы, предлоги) пишутся строчными буквами.

15. Названия торговых марок (Philips, Sony).

16. Названия ученых степеней и должностей (А.В., Ph.D., М.D.).

17. Слова, обозначающие членов семьи, пишутся с заглавной буквы, если они приравниваются к именам собственным:

Mum and Dad are coming to dinner today.

As a child I often spend my summer holidays with my aunt Emily.

Правила переноса

Как и в русском языке, перенос в английском всегда подчинен смыслу слова. Следует обращать внимание на то, чтобы перенос не исказил смысл слова или его произношение.

Перенос невозможен в следующих случаях:

1. Не рекомендуется переносить последнее слово предложения на следующую страницу. Также не рекомендуется переносить на следующую страницу строку, которая является последней в абзаце.

2. Нельзя переносить знаки препинания, а также сокращенные обозначения мер веса, длины, времени, отделяя их тем самым от числительного, к которому они относятся (220 km, 500 cm).

3. Нельзя отделять фамилию от инициалов.

4. Собственные имена никогда не разделяются (Moscow, London, Africa).

5. Следует избегать переноса составных частей названий (the Atlantic Ocean, Latin America).

6. Нельзя разбивать переносом буквенные аббревиатуры (USA, UNO).

7. Слова, состоящие из одного слога, никогда не переносятся (though, through, height).

8. Суффикс третьего лица единственного числа глагола в настоящем простом времени -s, -es не переносится даже в тех случаях, когда он образует самостоятельный слог (he buys, he sells, he wishes).

9. Окончание множественного числа существительных не переносится даже в тех случаях, когда оно образует самостоятельный слог (houses, boxes).

10. Сочетания букв, обозначающие один звук, не разделяются при переносе.

Перенос возможен в следующих случаях:

1. Разделяются удвоенные согласные (mis-sion, let-ter).

2. Разделяются две согласные, стоящие рядом (pen-cil, ster-ling).

3. Префиксы и суффиксы отделяются от корня (dis-like, pro-long, drffer-rent, acknowledg-ment).

4. Сложные слова делятся на составные части (some-times, there-after).

5. Согласная между двумя гласными переносится со вторым слогом (ma-jor, la-ter).

6. Переносятся суффиксы сравнительной и превосходной степени прилагательных (short-er, short-est).

7. Переносится суффикс -ing причастия и герундия (go-ing, play-ing).

ЛИТЕРАТУРА

1. Брандес М. П. Стилистика текста. Теоретический курс. Учебник –М.: "КДУ", 2011.

2. Голуб И.Б. Русский язык и культура речи. Учебное пособие. – М.: Логос, 2002.

3. Иванова Н.К.Орфография английского языка. М.: АСТ; Восток-Запад. – М., 2007.

4. Кун О.Н. Все трудности английской фонетики и орфографии. Начальный уровень. – М.: АСТ Москва; Восток-Запад, 2009.

5. Россихина Г.Н., Ульянова Е.С. Новые правила правописания немецкого языка. Справочное пособие. – М.: ЧеРо, 2008.

6. Солганик Г.Я. Стилистика текста: Учебное пособие. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 1997.

7. Стилистика и культуры речи: Учеб. Пособие / Т.П. Плещенко, Н.В. Федотова, Р.Г. Чечет; под ред. П.П. Шубы. — Мн.: «ТетраСистемс», 2001.

Научные журналы в электронном формате:

8. Annual Review of Education, Communication and Language Sciences. URL: http://research.ncl.ac.uk/ARECLS/ (дата обращения 18.06.2012).

9. Early Childhood Research and Practice. URL: http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/index.html (дата обращения 18.06.2012).

10. English Language Teaching. URL: http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index. (дата обращения 18.06.2012).

11. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education. URL: http://www.iejee.com (дата обращения 18.06.2012).

12. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. URL: http://ojs.academypublisher.com/index (дата обращения 18.06.2012).

ЧАСТЬ 1. ОСОБЕННОСТИ НАУЧНОГО СТИЛЯ: ЛЕКСИЧЕСКИЕ И ФРАЗЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ СРЕДСТВА, РАЗНОВИДНОСТИ И ЖАНРЫ

12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Следующая ⇒

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