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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Text 5. Programming Languages⇐ ПредыдущаяСтр 14 из 14
Let's assume that we have studied the problem, designed a logical plan (our flowchart or pseudocode), and are now ready to write the program instructions. The process of writing program instructions is called coding. The instructions will be written on a form called a coding form.. The instructions we write will be recorded in a machine-readable form using a keypunch, key-to-tape, or key-to-disk, or entered directly into computer memory through a terminal keyboard. The computer cannot understand instructions written in just any old way. The instructions must be written according to a set of rules. These rules are the foundation of a programming language. A programming language must convey the logical steps of the program plan in such a way that the control unit of the CPU can interpret and follow the instructions. Programming languages have improved throughout the years, just as computer hardware has improved. They have progressed from machine- oriented languages that use strings of binary 1s and 0s to problem-oriented languages that use common mathematical and/or English terms. There are over 200 problem-oriented languages. The most common of them are COBOL, FORTRAN, PL/I, RPG, BASIC, PASCAL. COBOL was the most widely used business-oriented programming language. Its name is an acronym for Common Business-Oriented Language. COBOL was designed to solve problems that are oriented toward data handling and input-output operations. Of course, COBOL can perform arithmetic operations as well, but its greatest flexibility is in data handling. COBOL also was designed as a self-documenting language. Self-documenting languages are those that do not require a great deal of explanation in order to be understood by someone reading the program instructions. The self-documenting aspect of COBOL is made possible by its sentence like structure and the very generous maximum symbolic field-name length of 30 characters. With a field-name length of up to 30 characters, the name can clearly identify the field and its purpose. The FORTRAN IVlanguage is oriented toward solving problems of a mathematical nature. The name FORTRAN comes from the combination of the words formula translation. The version of FORTRAN IV has been designed as algebra-based programming language. Any formula or those mathematical relationships that can be expressed algebraically can easily be expressed as a FORTRAN instruction. FORTRAN is the most commonly used language for scientific applications. PL/I stands for programming language I. It was designed as a general-purpose language incorporating features similar to COBOL for data handling instructions and features similar to FORTRAN for mathematical instructions. PL/I is much more than a combination of the good features of both COBOL and FORTRAN, as it has many capabilities that are unique. Yet, although PL/I is one of the most versatile and the most powerful of the programming languages, it is not the most commonly used. COBOL and FORTRAN have been available for a longer period of time than PL/I, and many more users work with those languages. Exercise 1. Find in the text the English for: Языки программирования; блок-схема; кодированная форма; вид, удобочитаемый для компьютера; в соответствии с набором правил; представить логические шаги программы; таким образом; совершенствовать языки программирования; машинно-ориентированные языки; проблемно-ориентированные языки; обычный термин; язык для программирования экономических задач; обработка информации; операции по вводу-выводу данных; гибкость; идентифицировать поле и его цели; решение проблем математического характера; сферы научного применения; универсальный язык; включать свойства; уникальные возможности; многофункциональный и самый мощный из языков программирования. Exercise 2.Find in texts 1 and 2 the synonyms to: Nouns: command; line; characteristic; form; evolution; enumeration; mistake; method; character; manual (instruction); consumption; storage; basics; abbreviation; interpretation; correlation; possibility. Verbs: include; inform; process; protect; apply; permit; stress; suppose; learn; make up; write; key; explain; define; perfect; advance; decide; execute; demand. Adjectives: full; incorrect; usual; necessary; accessible; required; considerable; floppy; possible. Exercise 3. Translate conditional sentences. Explain their types. I. 1. If you try very hard you can master any language. 2. If you want to master any language you must know at least three thousand words. 3. You willimprove your pronunciation if you read aloud every day. 4. Time will be saved if one uses a com puter. 5. If you learn all the words of the lesson you will write your test successfully. 6. If you or I add up two numbers of six figures without a calculator, it will take us a lot of time. II. 1. It would be a good thing if you didn't smoke. 2. If the earth didn't rotate it wouldn't have the shape of a ball. 3. If I had the time I should help you to solve the problem. But I must be off. 4.1 should translate the article without difficulty if I knew English well. 5. If I were in your place I should learn to speak English fluently. 6. Were you asked to explain why addition is performed the way it is, you would probably have to think for a while before answering. III. 1.1 decided to stay at home last night. I would have gone out if I hadn't been so tired. 2. Had he not been busy, he wouldn't have missed that conference. 3. Why didn't you phone me yesterday? I would have helped you. 4. If you had attended preliminary courses, you would have passed you examinations more successfully. 5. Had the manager had this information before, he would have acted differently. 6. The binary system is particulary appropriate to the nature of an electric machine; if it had not existed, computer designers would have had to invent it. Exercise 4. Answer the questions. 1. What is the process of writing instructions called? 2. What is a code? 3. How must instructions be written? 4. What is the foundation of any programming language? 5. How was the development of programming languages progressing throughout the years? 6. What are the most common problem-oriented languages? 7. What is COBOL? 8. What functions was COBOL designed for? 9. What does FORTRAN serve for? 10. What capabilities has PL/I?
Computer Glossary
Extra Reading Texts Text 1 Optical Technology One of the most interesting developments in telecommunication is the rapid progress of optical communication where optical fibers are replacing conventional telephone wires and cables. Just as digital technologies greatly improved the telephone system, optical communication promises a considerable increase in capacity, quality, performance and reliability of the global telecommunication network. New technologies such as optical fibers will increase the speed of telecommunication and provide new, specialized information service. Voice, computer data, even video images, will be increasingly integrated into a single digital communication network capable of processing and transmitting virtually any kind of information. It is a result of combining two technologies: the laser, first demonstrated in 1960, and the fabrication 10 years later of ultra-thin silicon fibres which can serve as lightwave conductors. With the further development of very efficient lasers plus continually improved techniques to produce thin silica fibres of incredible transparency, optical systems can transmit pulses of light as far as 135 kilometers without the need for amplification or regeneration. At present high-capacity optical transmission systems are being installed between many major US cities at a rapid rate. The system most widely used now operates at 147 megabits per second and accommodates 6, 000 circuits over a single pair of glass fibres (one for each direction of transmission). This system will soon be improved to operate at 1.7 gigabits per second and handle 24, 000 telephone channels simultaneously. A revolution in information storage is underway with optical disk technology. The first digital optical disks were produced in 1982 as compact disks for music. They were further developed as a storage medium for computers. The disks are made of plastics coated with aluminium. The information is recorded by using a powerful laser to imprint bubbles on the surface of the disk. A less powerful laser reads back the pictures, sound or information. An optical disk is almost indestructible and can store about 1000 times more information than a plastic disk of the same size. One CD-ROM disk (650 MB) can replace 300, 000 pages of text (about 500 floppies), which represents a lot of savings in databases. The future of optical storage is called DVD (digital versatile disk). A DVD-ROM can hold up to 17 GB, about 25 times an ordinary CD-ROM. For this reason, it can store a large amount of multimedia software and complete full-screen Hollywood movies in different languages. However, DVD-ROMs are «read-only» devices. To avoid this limitation, companies also produce DVD rewritable drives. Besides, it is reported that an optical equivalent of a transistor has been produced and intensive research on optical electronic computers is underway at a number of US companies as well as in countries around the world. It is found that optical technology is cost-effective and versatile. It finds new applications every day - from connecting communication equipment or computers within the same building or room to long distance transcontinental, transoceanic and space communications. Exercise 1. Give English equivalents: обычные телефонные провода и кабели, цифровые технологии, надежность, объединять в одно целое, проводник световых волн, усиление, устанавливать, развивать, представлять собой, оптико- электронный компьютер, рентабельный, Exercise 2. Give Russian equivalents: capacity, computer data, transmitting information, ultra-thin silicon fibres, incredible transparency, regeneration, optical disk technology, coated, database, multimedia software, rewritable drive, cost-effective, application. Exercise 3. Match up: optical........................................conductors conventional.............................. bubbles silicon...........................................medium lightwave.................................... communication storage......................................... software to imprint................................... telephone wires and cables multimedia................................... fibres Exercise 4. Fill in the blanks: 1.7 gigabits, digital communication network, cost-effective and versatile, high-capacity optical transmission systems, transistor, digital technologies, coated, information storage. 1. Just as … greatly improved the telephone system, optical communication promises a considerable increase in capacity, quality, performance and reliability. 2. Voice, computer data, even video images, will be increasingly integrated into a single …. 3. At present … are being installed between many major US cities at a rapid rate. 4. This system will soon be improved to operate at … per second. 5. A revolution in … is underway with optical disk technology. 6. The disks are made of plastics … with aluminium. 7. It is reported that an optical equivalent of a … has been produced. 8. It is found that optical technology is …. Exercise 5. Put in the right proposition: 1. You communicate with your computer … the keyboard. 2. The instruction manuals … most software applications contain a section describing the functions … each key. 3. The mouse works … sliding it around (ball down) … a flat surface. 4. You will see the arrow … your screen moving … unison. 5. That's the only part the computer pays attention …. 6. Your computer is not complete … the monitor. 7. The sharpness … the picture depends … the number and size … these pixels. 8. Some … the controls … the monitor change the size and position … the image. 9. Windows includes a number … screen savers. 10.The drives can read and write … floppy diskettes. 11.The amount and variety … material you can access … CD-ROM is amazing. 12.If a diver wants to know an accurate depth he is down, he must set water type he is…. 13.If a diver wants to know how long he has been down, he can see this … the display. 14.Before he descends, the diver sets the time … ascend. 15.Optical communication promises a considerable increase … capacity, quality, performance and reliability … the global telecommunication network. 16.The system most widely used now operates … 147 megabits (thousand bits) per second. 17.The first digital optical disks were produced … 1982 as compact disks … music. 18.The information is recorded … using a powerful laser to imprint bubbles … the surface … the disk. Exercise 6. Put the verbs into the correct tense form: a. In the nearest future digital communication network (to allow) to process and transmit voice, computer data and video images. b. Invention of the laser and thin silicon fibres (to make) it possible to transmit pulses of light without amplification and regeneration. c. New high-capacity optical transmission systems (to operate) between many major US cities. d. Another revolution (to concern) optical disk technology. e. An optical disk (to be) capable of storing about 1000 times more information than a plastic disk of the same size. Exercise 7. Answer the following questions: 1. Which is one of the most interesting developments in telecommunication nowadays? 2. What does optical communication promise? 3. What are the capabilities of optical fibers? 4. What are the perspectives of optical fibers? 5. Why is the system developing rapidly now? 6. What are the advantages of using compact discs? 7. How much information can a DVDROM hold? 8. Where can optical technology be used?
TEXT 2 Optical Disks and Drives Optical disks can store information at much higher densities than magnetic disks. Thus, they are ideal for multimedia applications where images, animation and sound occupy a lot of disk space. Besides, they are not affected by magnetic fields. This means that they are secure and stable, e.g. they can be transported through airport metal detectors without damaging the data. However, optical drives are slower than hard disks. While there are hard drives with an average access time of 8 millisecond (ms), most CD-ROM drives have an access time of 150 to 20 ms. There are various types of optical drives, which have become a reality. CD-ROM systems use optical technology. The data is rewritable using a laser beam. To read CD-ROM disks, you need an optical drive (a CD-ROM player). A typical CD-ROM disk can hold 650 MB (megabytes) of sound, text, photographs, music, multimedia materials and applications. In addition, most CD-ROM drives can be used to play audio CDs. Do you remember that CD stands for compact disk? Yet CD-ROM technology has one disadvantage. The data on a CDRОМ cannot be changed or «written» to, i.e. it is impossible to add your own material to what is on the disk. It is like a music CD. It is not designed for you to write on, it is designed to hold a lot of information that the user doesn't need to change. Magneto-optical (MO) drives use both a laser and an electromagnet to record information. Consequently, MO disks are rewritable, that is they can be written to, erased, and then written again. They are available in two formats. Their capacity may be more than 2 GB (gigabyte) or 230 to 640 MB. Such combined devices are good for back up purposes and storage of large amounts of information such as a dictionary or encyclopedia. Exercise 1. Give English equivalents: оптический диск, сoхранять информацию, быть подверженным чему-либо, время доступа, становиться реальностью, обозначать. Exercise 2. Give Russian equivalents: Rewritable, secure, density, multimedia materials, consequently, optical drives. Exercise 3. Match up: to store ……………………………… data to be affected …………………………. for to damage …………………………… information to stand ……………………………… purpose back up ………………………………. by Exercise 4. Put in the right proposition: 1. Machine code consist … the 1s and Os (binary code) that are processed … the CPU. 2. Low-level languages are converted … machine code … a special program called an assembler. 3. Any high-level language is independent … the computer the programme will be run …. 4. С, a high-level programming language, can be used … all kinds of computers. 5. In the Internet millions.. computers are connected … one another. 6. The Internet is growing … a surprising rate. 7. Hypertext is the text that contains links … other documents. 8. To surf in the Internet you can also click … keywords. 9. Special programmes allow people … talk … each other in the Web. 10.Networks can be linked together … telephone lines or fibre-optic cables. 11.Optical disks are ideal … multimedia applications. 12.When you pass … airport metal detectors Optical disks are not affected … magnetic fields. 13.CDs are not designed … you … write …. Exercise 5. Put the verbs into the correct tense form: 1. Optical disks (to serve) to store information. 2. Airport metal detectors (to damage) the data on the disk? 3. CDs (to hold) 650 MB or 2 GB? 4. Нow (to be) rewritable disks called? Exercise 6. Answer the following questions: 1. What can optical disks be used for? 2. What are their advantages and disadvantages? 3. How can data be retrieved from a CD? 4. What are CDs designed for and their disadvantage? 5. What is the other type of disks and what is their capacity? TEXT 3. Computer Graphics Computer graphics are pictures and drawings produced by computers. A graphics programme interprets the input provided by the user and transports it into images that can be displayed on the screen, printed on paper or transferred to microfilm. In the process the computer uses hundreds of mathematical formulas to convert the bits of data into precise shapes and colours. Graphics can be developed for a variety of uses including illustrations, architectural designs and detailed engineering drawings. Mechanical engineering uses sophisticated programs for applications in computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). In the car industry CAD software is used to develop, model and test car designs before the actual parts are made. This can save a lot of time and money. Basically, computer helps users to understand complex information quickly by presenting it in more understandable and clearer visual forms. Electric engineers use computer graphics for designing circuits and in business it is possible to present information as graphics and diagrams. These are certain to be much more effective ways of communicating than lists of figures or long explanations. Today, three-dimensional graphics along with color and computer animation are supposed to be essential for graphic design, computer-aided engineering (CAE) and academic research. Computer animation is the process of creating objects and pictures which move across the screen; it is used by scientists and engineers to analyze problems. With appropriate software they can study the structure of objects and how it is affected by particular changes. A graphic package is the software that enables the user to draw and manipulate objects on a computer. Each graphic package has its own facilities, as well as a wide range of basic drawing and painting tools. The collection of tools in a package is known as a palette. The basic geometric shapes, such as lines between two points, arcs, circles, polygons, ellipses and even text, making graphical objects are called “primitives”. You can choose both the primitive you want and where it should go on the screen. Moreover, you can specify the «attributes» of each primitive, e.g., its colour, line type and so on. The various tools in a palette usually appear together as pop-up icons in a menu. To use one you can activate it by clicking on it. After specifying the primitives and their attributes you must transform them. Transformation means moving or manipulating the object by translating, rotating and scaling the object. Translation is moving an object along an axis to somewhere else in the viewing area. Rotation is turning the object larger or smaller in any of the horizontal, vertical or depth direction (corresponding to the x, у and z axis). The term «rendering» describes the techniques used to make your object look real. Rendering includes hidden surface removal, light sources and reflections. Exercise 1. Give English equivalents: Всплывающая иконка, быть важным, трехмерная графика, зрительные образы, представлять, преобразовывать, компьютерная графика. Exercise 2. Give Russian equivalents: Graphics program, computer-aided design, computer-aided manufacturing, circuits, to analyze problems, appropriate software, polygon. Exercise 3. Match up: pop-up............................... in to be essential...........................on three-dimensional.....................a lot of time visual.........................................graphics to present...................................icons to convert.................................forms computer................................... into to be displayed........................... for to save...................................... graphics Exercise 4. Pick out the right definition: 1. Computer graphics are.... a) texts; b) pictures and drawings; c) digits. 2. Computers use … to convert data into shapes and colours. a) words; b) pictures; c) mathematical formulas. 3. Computer animation is the process of creating … which move across the screen. a) objects and pictures; b) mathematical formulas; c) books. 4. The collection of tools in a package is known as …. a) palette; b) polygon; c) palate. 5. … are called “primitives”. a) the digits; b) the basic geometric shapes; c) the letters. 6. The various tools in a palette usually appear together as … in a menu. a) pop-up corks; b) pop-up letters; c) pop-up icons. Exercise 5. Put the verbs into the correct tense form: 1. Computer graphics (represent) pictures and drawings produced by computers. 2. To produce images that (can) be displayed on the screen the computer (to use) hundreds of mathematical formulas. 3. Computers (to help) in CAD and CAM to save time and money. 4. In business computers (to be used) to present information as graphics and diagrams. 5. With the help of computer animation scientists and engineers (to analyze) problems. 6. What a graphic package (to enable) the user to draw? Exercise 6. Answer the following questions: 1. What is computer graphics? 2. How does a computer interpret the command? 3. Where is computer graphics used? 4. In what way does computer graphics help people? 5. What is computer animation and how does it help scientists and engineers? 6. What does a graphic package include? 7. What are “primitives” and how can they be used?
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