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And still in Palmer's method purely mechanical repetition was overrated while spontaneous speech was underrated.



Audio-Lingual Methods

During the sixties and seventies there were introduced Audio-Lingual Methods. The aim was to develop audio-lingual skills, i.e. listening compre­hension and speaking. Rejection of translation, ousting the native language and ignoring conscious-raising approach were the main features of the Audio-Lingual Methods. The techniques used in them were similar to those applied by the teacher of intuitive direct methods, however preference was given to drills with tape— recorders and studying grammatical structures. A modifica­tion of this method is the Visual-Audio-Lingual Method in which visual aids such as films are applied.

Tasks and Drills Topical of the 1930s and 1970s

In most of the methods created between the 1930s and 1970s there were used either dialogues given orally or in written and the drills like those below. Most of them are taken from the book by Richards J. C. and Rodgers T. S. [82,31-44].

/. Listen to the utterance. Repeat it aloud as soon as you hear it. Repeating it for the second time add a few words to show you've understood it, e. g.: I haven't yet seen the film I haven't yet seen the film, because I'm busy.

2.          Listen to the utterance .Repeat it changing the grammatical form of
one of the words ,e. g.:

I met them in the street two days ago. — I met him in the street two days ago.

3.          Listen to the utterance. Repeat it replacing one of the nouns with a personal
pronoun, e. g.

Helen left early. She left early.

4±_Listen to the utterance. Repeat it addressing the utterance to the person men­tioned e. g. Ask John when he began. — John, when did you begin?

5.          Listen to the utterance. When repeating it complete it with a proper word,
e.g.

I'll go my way and you go.... — I'll go my way and you go yours.

6.          Read (or listen to ) the utterance and when repeating it put the word given
in brackets into its proper place, e. g.

I know him. (hardly ) — / hardly know him.

7.          Read (or listen to) the utterance and when repeating shorten it, use a word
instead of a phrase, e. g.:

Put your hand on the table. — Put your hand on it.

8.          Transform the sentence making it negative or interrogative or through changes
in tense, mood, voice, aspect or modality, e. g.

He knows my address. He doesn't know my address. If he had known my address then....

9.          Integrate two separate sentences into one, e. g.

They must be honest. This is important. It is important that they must be

10. Make an appropriate rejoinder to a given utterance, e. g.
Thank you.
You are welcome.

11. Restore the sentence to its original form, e. g.

Students/ waiting/ bus The students are waiting for a bus.

The methods developed from the 30-ies till the 70-ies of the 20-th cen­tury were considered different, "new", or "innovative" [1,13], however all of them made focus on accuracy which is achieved through drills and practice in grammatical structures and sentence patterns. Most of the drills were mecha­nistic in which grammar was taught by lexical means, e.g.:

Read and remember:

I want him to come today.

They want me to show a new film to them.

All the tasks and drills typical of the 1930s and 1970s really work and are worth using only at the level of developing speaking and writing speech -abits.








COMMUNICATIVE METHODS

By the late 1960s it was clear that foreign language learners were not able :o use speech spontaneously being trained only in language accuracy, situ-2:ional predictions and sentence patterns. The dissatisfaction by the methods


of teaching foreign languages used by the 1970-s resulted in the necessity of creating a new method of teaching. The main requirement for the method was as follows: students must to be taught so that they could actualize their linguistic competence in various conditions of speech communication in any country of the European Union [27, 105]. It was the time when the European Common Market spread to all European countries. And a decision was taken to elaborate such a method which would answer the plurilingual character of all countries of the European Union.

The methods which were worked out later to achieve the goal formulated were called Communicative Methods. The central methodological notion of these methods is "foreign language communicative competence of the lear­ner". The term "speech competence" was first suggested by the prominent American linguist N.Chomsky. By speech competence he meant language knowledge in contrast to speech performance which he defined as the ability of a person to create individual and unique sentences [57. 325].

Methodologists united these two fundamental characteristics of speech mechanisms and started elaborating the ways to embody this functional and communicative potential of the language in methods of teaching foreign lan­guages [18, 45]. Thus the Communicative Approach to teaching foreign lan­guages appeared. It included a great lot of methods.

The following methods can be considered within the Communicative Approach: Communicative Language Teaching, Total Physical Response, The Silent Way, Community Language Learning, The Method of Natural Approach, Suggestopedia, The Kitajgorodskaya's Method of Activation of Individual and Group Potential, the Project Method, Game-like Methods, The Oral-Conscious-Communicative Method, Task-Based Learning, The Immersion Method, the Rounov Method and many others.

All the methods enumerated above are different in the ways of their prac­tical realization, however the scientific idea underlying each of them is the same: speech competence can be formed and developed in learners only when they are taught speech functions instead of linguistic laws [27, 104]. The aim and means of realization of all communicative methods is learners's master­ing speech functions of the foreign lesson. Speech functions can be mastered by learners only if while being taught speaking or listening, writing or reading they use foreign language forms spontaneously as a means of socially back­grounded speech interaction.

Methodology is an ever young branch of science, the Communicative Ap­proach hasn't yet exhausted its potentialities and that's why new technologies of teaching within it are still elaborated ("a technology of teaching" and "a method of teaching" are not synonyms). All of them has sprung to life as com­mercial projects at the market of educational services. With the pass of the time some of them turn to be methods which methodological techniques can be found in foreign language instruction in general and comprehensive school.


The communicative methods can be divided into: humanistically-based methods; comprehension-based ones and those, which use principles of both humanistic pedagogics and those of comprehension-based teaching.

Below there is given a short review of three methods, each representing one of the above groups correspondingly.


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