Read the sentences. Pay special attention to the idea of completion of the action by some time in the future.

1. Within forty minutes of the sun shining on the earth, the sun will have given off as much energy as the entire world population will use in a year.
2. We still believe that the answer will have been found by the end of the century.
3. The new telescope will have been constructed by that time.

Translate the sentences into English.

1

• В 2009 году мы провели эксперимент.
• Мы проводим эксперименты с 2009 года.
• Мы провели серию экспериментов.
• К 2010 году мы завершили серию экспериментов.

2

• Я написал первую статью, когда я был студентом. (…when I was a student)
• Я пишу статьи со студенческих лет. (… since I was a student)
• За время учебы в университете я написал 4 статьи. (During my under-graduate course…)
• Когда я окончил университет, 2 мои статьи уже были опубликованы.

3

• В прошлом году мы получили первые результаты.
• Мы не получали достоверные результаты в течение 2 месяцев.
• Наконец мы получили нужные результаты.
• Когда мы завершили исследования, мы опубликовали результаты в журнале.

Perfect forms

Perfect Infinitive

(to have + Ved\V3)

Read and translate the sentences.

1. He has a background in electronic engineering and in politics, having been Italy’s undersecretary for research.
2. A technology-of-the-20th-century symposium held in 1895 might not have mentioned airplanes, radio, antibiotics, nuclear energy, electronics, computers or space exploration.
3. Universes that started out more chaotic might not have survived or evolved to support intelligent life.
4. One start-up company claims to have developed a cheaper and more energy-efficient approach.

Perfect Participle

(having + Ved\V3)

Read and translate the sentences.

1. Having studied nature so much, do you look at it differently?
2. In the desolate, icy waste of an unexplored Antarctic country Capt. Robert Falcon Scott gave up his life, after having reached the South Pole.
3. 69 percent of U.S. adults report having talked on a cell phone while 31 percent report having read or sent a text message or e-mail while driving in the past 30 days.
4. Quite a few studies have shown that after a night of sleep, you can learn new material much better than you can after having been awake all day. (Students, take note.)
5. The U.S. no longer leads the world in R& D intensity, having fallen to eighth place among the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development countries.

Answer the questions.

1. Do the events expressed by the Perfect Infinitive or the Perfect Participle take place at the same time as the actions of the predicate?
2. Which of them was earlier?

Work out the rule for use of the Perfect Infinitive and the Perfect Participle.

Part III

Vocabulary

Read the paragraph and answer the question.

What problem do scientists come across when they try to determine the gravitational force between two objects?

Physicists have struggled to marry quantum mechanics with gravity for decades. In contrast, the other forces of nature have obedientlyfallen into line. For instance, the electromagnetic force can be described quantum-mechanically by the motion of photons. * Try and work out the gravitational force between two objects in terms of a quantum graviton, however, and you quickly run into trouble —the answer to every calculation is infinity. But now Petr Hofava, a physicist at the University of California, Berkeley, thinks he understands the problem. It's all, he says, is a matter of time.

Find Russian equivalents for the underlined words.

Translate the sentence, marked with the asterisk.

4. Make and write down some phrases:

the answer	to	the problem
the question		the calculation
the approach		the text
the solution		the equation

Translate the sentences.

In terms of – с точки зрения, исходя из, с учетом.

1. In terms of the number of atomic nuclei, hydrogen constitutes 90%, helium about 10%, and everything else – from lithium to uranium – just a trace, about 0.1 percent.
2. You can only describe the “quantum state” of a photon in terms of its probabilities.
3. Potassium nitrate is the most important ingredient in terms of both bulk and function because the combustion process releases oxygen from the potassium nitride, promoting the rapid burning of the other ingredients.

Part IV

Writing a paper

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