Chapter 2 The Science of Life-Span Development

 

Summary

 

1.0 Images of Life-Span Development: Erikson and Piaget as Children

 

The life experiences of developmental theorists influence what aspects of development interest them and their methods of study. Erik Erikson's struggle to understand himself is reflected by his theory about the psychosocial stages of development. Jean Piaget's intellectual training and interest in the normal intellect is reflected by his theory about the stages of cognitive development. Each alternative theory contributes something to the understanding of life-span development.

 

2.0 Theory and the Scientific Method

 

Science is an accumulation of facts held together by theories. Theories, in turn, generate hypotheses that test specific predictions of the theory. The scientific method involves a number of steps: identifying the problem, collecting data, drawing conclusions, and revising theories. Important aspects of scientific research concern measures, strategies, sexism, and ethics.

 

3.0 Theories of Development

 

Psychoanalytic Theories. Psychoanalytic theory is a view of personality that emphasizes biological forces and the symbolic transformation of experience and the private, unconscious aspects of a person's mind.

Freud proposed a psychoanalytic model with three structures. The id, the source of psychic energy, is composed of unconscious sexual and aggressive instincts. It operates to maximize pleasure and avoid pain in accord with the pleasure principle. The ego is concerned with reality and operates according to the reality principle, which attempts to satisfy the pleasure needs of the id within the boundaries of reality. The ego is also seen as the seat of reason and logical thinking. The superego is the moral branch of the personality that arises through interactions with parents. Conflicts arise when the ego must balance the demands of the id and the requirements of the superego. The ego reduces conflicts with the id through the use of defense mechanisms, which express the desires of the id in disguised fashions. Repression is one example of a defense mechanism.

Freud indicates that different areas of the body (i.e., erogenous zones) comprise the seat of pleasure at the different stages of development. Fixation can occur when a person does not pass from one stage into another, through under- or overgratification at that stage. In the oral stage, the mouth is the region of maximum pleasure. In the anal stage, the anus is the region of maximum pleasure. During the phallic stage, the child focuses on the genital region and experiences feelings of desire for the opposite-sex parent. During the latency stage, the child represses sexual feelings. The final psychosexual stage begins with the onset of puberty and is called the genital period. During this period, sexual interest is reawakened.

Psychoanalytic theories now place less emphasis on sexual instincts and more emphasis on cultural experiences. In addition, the unconscious remains an important concept; however, greater weight now is placed on conscious thought.

Erikson's theory incorporates aspects of Freud's theory but sees development as psychosocial rather than psychosexual and continuous throughout the life-span. Erikson's stages are (a) (rust versus mistrust, (b) autonomy versus shame and doubt, (c) initiative versus guilt, (d) industry versus inferiority, (e) identity versus identify confusion (diffusion), (f) intimacy versus isolation, (g) generativity versus stagnation, and (h) ego integrity versus despair.

 

Cognitive Theories. Jean Piaget was interested in zoology and later in philosophy and psychology. His theory about the development of conscious thought in children is biological based, broad in scope, and has changed the course of developmental psychology.

Organization and adaptation are important concepts in Piaget's theory. Adaptation occurs through the dual processes of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when a current cognitive structure is used to understand some aspect of the world, whereas accommodation occurs when a new feature of the environment is incorporated into a structure by modifying the structure. Cognition is qualitatively different at each stage of development.

There are four stages of cognitive development in Piaget's theory. Infancy comprises the sensorimotor stage when thought is characterized by sensory and perceptual processes and action. Thought is not symbolic. By the end of this stage, the ability to use simple symbols develops. During Piaget's preoperational period, stable concepts are formed, mental reasoning emerges, magical belief systems are constructed, and egocentrism is perceptually based. Piaget's concrete operational period extends from about 7 years of age to the beginning of adolescence (age 11 approximately). During this period, thought is characterized as reversible and decentered but is limited to reasoning about the concrete world as it is. Thought is made up of operations, which are mental actions or representations that are reversible. The last stage of Piaget's theory is called formal operational thought, which appears in adolescents and adults. It is characterized by abstractness, hypothetical-deductive reasoning, and idealism. Thought is no longer limited to the real and concrete but can be applied to possibilities and to abstract propositions.

The information processing perspective is concerned with how people process information about their world. The computer metaphor is used as an attempt to understand human cognition.

 

Behavioral and Social Learning Theories. Behaviorists focus on those things that can be directly observed in the environment rather than on unconscious processes. Behavioral and social learning theories favor empirical approaches to development.

Skinner was a major proponent of behaviorism, the science of observable behavior and environmental causes, His theory of operant conditioning indicates that behavior (i.e., an operant response) is influenced by consequences produced by the environment. Consequences that increase the frequency of a behavior are called reinforcement, and consequences that reduce the frequency of a behavior are called punishment.

Bandura and Mischel developed social learning theory. This approach identifies behavior, environment, and cognition as the influential and interacting factors in development. The contemporary version, cognitive social learning theory, proposes that learning occurs through imitation and modeling as well as through reinforcement. Cognition allows individuals to control their own behavior and resist environmental influences. Observational learning may be detected in the way in which children watch and repeat the behavior of their parents.

 

Ethological Theories. Ethologists focus on the evolutionary arid biological determinants of behavior. Although ethologists carefully and systematically observe behavior, they prefer to do so in natural surroundings rather than in laboratories.

Lorenz studied imprinting in greyleg geese. The concept of critical periods in development indicates that there are times in life during which an organism must encounter specific experiences in order for certain behaviors to develop, Ethologists consider the development of behavior in terms of its evolutionary basis and in terms of the functions of the behavior at the time it appears.

 

Ecological Theory. Ecological theory entails an environmental view of development that is comprehensive in scope.

Socialization involves transactions between a changing child and a changing social environment. The analysis of sociocultural influences include the microsystem (the setting in which an individual lives), mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. These different levels help understand the various cultural contexts in which the child develops. Different societies view development differently.

 

An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation. An eclectic orientation emphasize the complexity of the developing person. This view proposes that there is no single theoretical orientation that explains all of development and advocates that one should be familiar with multiple perspectives and their most useful contribution to understanding life-span development, something that is life-long, multidirectional, multidimensional, plastic, historically embedded, contextual, and multidisciplinary.

 

4.0 Measures

 

All of the following methods allow researchers to perform systematic observation under controlled conditions.

 

Observations. Systematic observation means that a researcher knows what to look for, who to observe, and how to record the observations in a way that permit the use of statistical procedures. Naturalistic observation provides information under less controlled conditions than laboratory settings that allow the most control; however, subjects may behave differently in laboratory situations than they would in natural ones.

 

Interviews mid Questionnaires. Interviews may be informal or structured. Questionnaires resemble Structured interviews, but can be given to large numbers of individuals easily because responses are written rather than verbal.

 

Case Studies. A case study allows an in-depth look at a person; however, generalizing findings from one individual to others requires extreme caution.

 

Standardized Tests. Standardized tests compare an individual's characteristics with those of a large group of similar individuals by means of percentiles.

 

Cross-cultural Research with Ethnic Minority Groups. This kind of research compares individuals from different cultures or different ethnic minority groups. An emic approach aims to describe the importance of behavior to one culture or ethnic group without making any comparisons to other cultures or ethnic groups. In contrast, the etic approach aims to describe behavior in a way that allows comparisons and generalizations across cultures or ethnic groups. Researchers must be careful to avoid ethnic gloss in their research—making group members seem more alike than they really are. Traditional life-span developmental research has downplayed the importance of studying different cultures and groups.

 

Physiological Research and Research with Animals. Physiological research focuses on the biological basis of development. Relatively short-lived species allow life-span research on questions that would be impossible to answer with longer living species, such as our own.

 

Multimeasure, Multisource, Multicontext Approach. Because each method has certain strengths and weaknesses, researchers are most confident in their conclusions when they can derive them from multimeasures, multisources, and multicontexts.

 

5.0 Strategies for Setting Up Research Studies

Correlation Strategies. Correlational strategies are distinguished from experimental strategies. The correlational, strategy involves measuring the degree of relation between two variables, such as height and weight. Although causal statements cannot be made from correlational studies; correlation studies do allow us to make predictions.

 

Experimental Strategies. In contrast, the experimental strategy can determine causal relations between variables. In an experiment, an independent variable is manipulated and a dependent variable is measured. Subjects are randomly assigned to receive a given level of the independent variable. For example, one group receives a certain level (experimental group) whereas a second group receives a zero level (control group). Differences between the groups on the dependent variable are attributed to the differences in the levels of the independent variable, and causal statements can be made. Although experimental studies are preferred over correlational studies whenever possible, certain conditions either justify or require the use of correlational research.

 

6.0 Time Span of Inquiry

 

Cross-Sectional Approach. Cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches examine the effects of age on behavior. In a cross-sectional study, groups of individuals with different age ranges are compared at the same time. This is easy and time efficient; however, differences may be due to cohort effects, and such studies do not provide information about stability and change.

 

Longitudinal Approach. In a longitudinal study, a group of same-age children are examined at two or more points in time. Although this research entails much expense and time, this design can assess stability and change for individuals over time.

 

Sequential Approach. This research combines both cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches. This approach is complex, expensive, and time-consuming, but provides information unobtainable from either approach.

 

Cohort Effects. This term refers to differences between groups that are related to their time of birth rather than to differences in their ages. Possible cohort effects require researchers to be cautious about I he conclusions they draw from cross-sectional research, On the other hand, cohort effects are important sources of information about certain phenomena such as intelligence.

 

7.0 Reducing Sexist Research

 

Although traditional science often portrays itself as value free, life-span developmentalists now
recognize that much psychological research has been male oriented and male dominated and have
begun to examine issues from the perspectives of girls and women. Recommendations for conducting
nonsexist research focus on gender stereotypical assumptions in research methods, appropriate analysis and interpretation of gender differences and similarities and drawing conclusions appropriate to the scope of the study.

 

8.0 Ethics in Research on Child Development

 

The American Psychological Association (АРА) has adopted a code of ethics designed to protect subjects from mental and physical harm. There are four important ethical standards employed in child development research: (a) Informed consent must be obtained from parents or guardians who have a complete description of the procedures to be used with their children, (b) Children have the right to refuse to participate, and the experimenter has an obligation to calm the child if any upset occurs during the procedure, (c) The benefits of the experience for the child must outweigh any chance of harm, and the psychologist must convince a review board about this before conducting the research, (d) Children should be treated courteously and respectfully.

 

9.0 Being A Wise Consumer of Information about Life-Span Development

 

Be Cautious about What is Reported in the Media. Various media present findings about life-span development. Although the basis of the report may be grounded in professional articles or presentations, the media often focus on the sensational and surprising information and oversimplify the analysis.

 

Know How to Distinguish Between Nomothetic Research and Idiographic Needs. Nomothetic research focuses on groups whereas idiographic needs concern what is important for an individual.. The media often overlooks this distinction.

 

Recognize How It Is Easy to Overgeneralize from a Small or Clinical Sample. Media reports often do not include information about the size of the sample from which a conclusion was drawn. Samples almost always have unique characteristics which limit the generality of conclusions.

 

Remember that Causal Conclusions Cannot Be Made From Correlational Studies. Correlation studies do not allow causal conclusions; however, this error is commonly made in media presentations of life-span developmental research.

 

Always Consider the Source of the Information and Evaluate Its Credibility. Sources of findings such as journals vary in their professional reputations. Some sources are much more reputable than others. In the same way, some media sources are much more credible and responsible in their presentations of life-span developmental research than other sources.

 

10.0 Contemporary Concerns

 

Sociocultural Worlds of Development: Gender-Based Criticisms of Freud's Theory. Cross-cultural studies have called into question Freud's assumptions about the role of culture and experience in determining the personalities of females and males. Feminist criticisms and revisions of Freudian theory have been offered by Karen Homey and Nancy Chodorow. Both serve to counter a male bias in psychoanalytic theory.

Perspectives on Parenting and Education: Observing and imitating Parents. Observational learning may be detected in the way in which children watch and repeat the behavior of their parents. Parents can develop prosocial behavior by modeling kindly and self-sacrificing behavior.

 

Life-span Health and Well-Being: Cultural Expectations and Support for Health and Well-Being. Sociocultural factors encourage or discourage healthy life-styles.

 

Life-Span Practical Knowledge: Identity: Youth and Crisis. Books by Erik Erikson provide new insights into the life-span development of one's individual identity,

 

Key Terms

 

1. Images of Life-Span Development: Erikson and Piaget as Children

 

2.0 Theory and the Scientific Method

theory

hypotheses

scientific method

data

 

3.0 Theories of Development

unconscious

id

ego

superego

defense mechanism

repression

erogenous zones

fixation

oral stage

anal stage

phallic stage

phallus

Oedipus complex

latency stage

genital stage

psychosocial stages

psychosexual stages

trust versus mistrust

autonomy versus shame and doubt

initiative versus guilt

industry versus inferiority

identity versus identity confusion (diffusion)

intimacy versus isolation

generativity versus stagnation

integrity versus despair

conscious

organization

adaptation

assimilation

accommodation

qualitative difference

sensorimotor stage

preoperational stage

operations

concrete operational stage

formal operational stage

information processing

behaviorism

reinforcement

punishment

social learning theory

ethology

imprinting

critical period

sensitive period

ecological theory

microsystem

mesosystem

exosystem

macrosystem

culture

cross-cultural studies

chronosystem

eclectic theoretical orientation

 

4.0 Measures

systematic observation

laboratory

naturalistic observation

interview

questionnaire

case study

standardized test

emic approach

etic approach       

ethnic gloss

physiological research

  multimeasure, multisource, multicontext approach

 

5.0 Strategies for Setting Up Research Studies

correlational strategy

correlation coefficient

experimental strategy

experiment

cause and effect

random assignment

independent variable

dependent variable

experimental group

control group

 

6.0 Time Span of Inquiry

cross-sectional approach

longitudinal approach

sequential approach

cohort effects

 

7.0 Reducing Sexist Research

sexist versus nonsexist research

 

8.0 Ethics in Research on Child Development

code of ethics

informed consent

 

9.0 Being A Wise Consumer of Information about Life-Span Development

nomothetic research                                                  

ideographic needs

sample

causal conclusion

 

10.0 Contemporary Concerns

penis envy

observational learning

cultural context

 

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