Copying - Getting it Written Down

 

This is really an extension of Chapter 7 To the principles given there add these: If you are going the easy way, copying is the next step after "listening" -- advancing in code skill by adding the new action of writing it down.

 

What we hear as letters and words are now to be written with pencil and paper or with typewriter. It is learning to co-ordinate ear-to-mind-to-hand. Copying by hand exposes all the senses to what you are hearing, and it is nothing more than listening to and writing down what is being received. An old 1854 book on telegraphy described it as "taking dictation" -- at first letter-by-letter, later as word-by-word, etc. That is a good way to think of it. So, hunt up that pencil again. Operating ability is measured by copying: if you don't write it down -- putting down everything you hear exactly as you hear it -- you aren't copying.

 

A skilled operator is trained to copy what he hears 100% perfect. . Most people can learn to copy with a pencil up to about 25-wpm (a few can reach 35, rarely 45), but above that speed almost everybody needs a typewriter ("mill"). (On a typewriter it may also be done "mechanically" by direct ear-to-typewriter-key transfer without processing it through the letter stage to the typewriter key. -- See later in chapter) Remember - don't try to do more than one new thing at a time. You already know how to write. When you copy by hand, make it easy by writing the way you usually do. For example, don't try to block print unless this is natural and easy. Likewise, don't try to copy on a typewriter ("mill") before you have learned how to touch-type.

 

While most of us would like to know what we are copying as we copy, this isn't necessary. It can become so automatic that we copy something correctly without realizing what we are copying. (I usually like to know what I am copying, don't you?) People who do these things well do not struggle with them -- they have learned so well that it has become second natural for them.

 

Here is an interesting example of copying properly: - One night, as I was copying mixed groups in a very relaxed manner, and feeling quite comfortable with the code, I asked my friend if he would speed up to 25-wpm from the 20-wpm he had been sending. He started sending them at 25-wpm, and I was vexed at his misunderstanding, but began to copy anyway, wondering why he was using voice to send these simple data. -- Voice? What voice? He was sending clear code with letter-number combinations at 25-wpm and I was copying it easily." Aha! The listener was now thinking in terms of letters and numbers, not as code characters at all. He had become proficient.

 

To copy just WRITE DOWN what you hear, everything you hear -- not what you think your hear -- and you will make progress. The faculties of hearing and understanding code signals work best in learning to coordinate this way to create a useful copying ability.

 

Practice with Familiar Text Helps
As in listening, this helps by dispelling the fear of missing something, because we already know what it is about. By using things, which we have read, or recorded material we are already familiar with, we feel more comfortable. When we know, at least in general, what it's about or what it says, we know what to expect and not worry about not understanding and losing out. It helps build confidence in learning to copy behind. The more familiar we are with what we are copying, the easier it all becomes. This confidence will begin to carry over into receiving new and unfamiliar materials also.

 

Pay No Attention to Any Errors
Condition yourself to copy what comes easily. As you practice, copy everything you instantly recognize and pay no attention to any errors -- just forget them and go on. If You Miss Anything Just Go On -- Let it go, forget it and keep going on. Train yourself to leave a blank space and go on, because if you stop for even an instant to puzzle over a signal you didn't recognize, you will miss at least some of what follows. We must condition ourselves to do this. After all, we're learning.

 

The holes in your copy will gradually fill up and you will be keeping relaxed while you go, just leaving blanks for each missed letter or word. (However, characters we habitually miss do point out what needs more practice.) Remember also that we may sometimes mis-hear, or mis-identify a character or a word -- and also it is always possible that the sender may have made a mistake. -- Count these things as of no importance, and keep at it until you can do it easily. Don 't work so long at a time during these learning stages that you get tired or bored. Use a wide variety of material and choose it to be as interesting as possible.

 

One student, speaking of ARRL practice materials, said: "I made more progress in learning code in weeks than I did in years previously, because it is more interesting to copy and understand solid copy." Some practice copying random 5-character groups is good in the early stages to make sure we are recognizing the characters correctly and to prevent anticipation, but because it is meaningless it soon tends to become boring. -- Too much of this may also lead the mind to expect a break after each five letters when we are trying to copy normal English. This has happened! (Practice with "Backward English" -- provided in some computer programs -- is better because the letter groups are of variable length and have normal letter distribution.)

 

IF YOU WANT TO BECOME MORE PROFICIENT
Who Doesn’t? If you are able to copy every letter, you are not learning -- but if you are only getting two letters out of every three, or four out of every five, your mind will be motivated to get that extra letter. There is always some speed at which for the time being each of us falls apart -- so what? It need not become a barrier. If you want to become more proficient, don't practice at such a slow speed that it becomes a fixed habit.

 

Keep trying in short bursts of not over a minute or two at a time at higher speeds 2 - 5 (or more) wpm faster in order to force the mind to respond faster -- it will. This is especially important when we are at a speed where we getting about 95% of it, so that we don't become satisfied to stay there. It is often best to begin a practice period, when the mind is fresh, at a speed too fast to get more than about half of it, and then slow down. -- Keep moving up faster to improve, because then copying at a little slower speed than your maximum will become easy and enjoyable. Alternating with some practice at 2, 5 or more wpm above your limit for brief periods will challenge the mind, then dropping back a little will show you are really improving. Every operator soon develops enough awareness of what he is writing down, that he doesn't need to wonder whether it is copied correctly.

 

In The Beginning
If you begin copying early, you will be copying letter-by-letter, sticking close behind the sender: you hear the character and write it down, then forget it and listen to the next and write it down, and so on. But to copy this way for very long, in step with each letter being sent, tends to tense us up. It becomes tedious and tiring because it is meaningless and so much conscious effort is involved. Then you usually have to read what you have written in order to understand it. (If we look back while copying we may lose out.) In practicing to speed up copying, try not to stop if you fall behind, just keep going.

 

The beginner is afraid of losing something, because he can't get it all down fast enough. He is frantically struggling to keep up, "tail-gating" the incoming signals, so as not to lose any of them. This is because he is still not recognizing some characters quickly enough. The problem is made worse because the characters are received at very unequal rates of speed as compared to writing them down. The letters "E," "I" and "T", for example, are the shortest letters, while C, J, Q and Y are the longest ones. A beginner copying letter-by-letter can get panicky trying to write down an "E" or other short letter before the next one arrives. It is worse when two E's, or EI, IE, TT or other short letters occur together, and we frantically try to write them down before the next one comes along. As we advance most people can copy letter-by-letter up to about 25 wpm or even faster, but above that we simply have to find a better way.

 

A Better Way -- Copying Behind
The first step to making copying easy is to learn to copy behind. That means training the mind to act as a buffer, or short-term memory, between hearing the incoming signals and what we are writing down. Several characters or words are automatically held in mind after hearing them and before writing them down, meanwhile continuing to listen to the next ones coming along. This helps smooth out the uneven rate at which characters are received as compared to writing them down, and also it relieves the mental strain of copying. It serves as a cushion. In this way we can also make much better looking copy and can even capitalize proper names as we hear them.

 

Copying behind is another good way to beat anticipation. It puts a premium on listening before you write A good operator seldom starts writing a word down until it is completed. By starting out using things, which we have read, or recorded material we are already familiar with, we feel more comfortable. When we know what it's about or what it says, we know what to expect and not worry about losing out.

 

Above about 25-wpm, we need to build up vocabulary of at least the most common words and syllables. Practice waiting until a syllable or short word is finished before starting to write it down, then try it for two syllables. Writing down more than that behind what has been sent may be risky -- the word may turnout to be longer -- unexpected letters may still be coming and surprise you, making you miss them or even more (If you're still going at 40-wpm you will have to copy word by word.) Some people seem to develop this ability without any special effort as they progress. But for most of us it just doesn't seem to come at all without some help.

 

How can we learn to copy behind? Is there something we can do specifically? There certainly is. Here is one way to begin: start out with random two-character groups at first, until you get the hang of it, keeping the spacing between groups wider than normal. Listen until both characters have been heard before starting to write them down. As this becomes easier, try groups of three, then of four and if you wish up to five or more. Practice also with decreasing spacing between groups until it is normal. Another approach with any kind of text, is this way: listen to the first character, but wait until the next one has been completed before writing the first one down; write down the second one after hearing the third one, etc. Then increase the number of intermediate characters between hearing and writing to two, then three, etc., as far as you wish.

 

This kind of practice should be extended to include short syllables and short words (such as the 100 most common words), in each case waiting until the whole syllable or word is completed before starting to write it down, and while listening to what follows. To extend this to more than a couple of syllables or short words can be risky, because, as noted before, something unexpected may come along and throw you off balance, and cause you to miss some of what follows.

 

An interesting example is this comment (from the time when a government inspector had to test each individual applicant for an operator's license): - "I can remember the benefits of copying behind. The inspector giving the test started and sent 'of' and then added an 'f.' I immediately thought of 'off' and got set for the next word, but to my dismay, without a pause he sent an 'i' and so immediately I tried to outfox him by prewriting the word 'office' To my consternation he kept on going with 'cia' and I quickly revised my thinking to 'official.' But I was wrong, because he finally ended up with the word 'officially.' Listening first and copying behind are beneficial." So, copying a word or two behind is a leisurely pace, but too much more may produce some mental strain, especially if an unusual word comes along.

 

Copying behind has many advantages besides making it easy. It allows us to make a neat, finished-looking copy with a proper appearance, capitalization and punctuation. When it is at speeds well below our limit, it gives us time to fill in gaps and flaws due to static, etc., and to correct errors in sending. Context can help. (Numbers, however, have no context and generally must be copied without delay.) The purpose of copying behind is to relieve the mind of the compulsive pressure, the strain, of keeping up letter by letter.

 

Most high speed operators who have discussed this subject tell us that we need not copy more than one or two syllables or words behind, and in fact as speeds go up this is about the safe limit. (Some experts, such as Ted McElroy seem to have been able to copy 6 or more words -- even whole sentences -- behind with no trouble at all, but most of us probably cannot.) Copying letter-by-letter forces one to write with conscious effort and this in turn blocks our attempts to copy behind.

 

What Makes Sense Is Easier
We can hold in mind only a few individual numbers or random characters at a time because they usually have no coherence, no meaning - they don't make sense as syllables and words do. Words and phrases are much easier to remember than a string of letters or numbers (or a call sign) because they form meaningful groups, not a lot of little unrelated pieces. This is why Walter Candler, who in earlier days taught many operators to become experts, was convinced that learning to hear words as words was essential for efficient copying behind. (He was a strong proponent of listening practice.) We can learn to copy by words as readily as by letters. For example, the word "the" takes no longer time than the number "9."

 

Copying behind by syllables, words and even by longer expressions is merely an extension of this. If we build up our working vocabulary (word-familiarity) as already discussed in Chapter 7, listening, this will help us a great deal. As speeds go up you will find that, by around 40 wpm you're copying word by word and by 60 wpm (if you go that far) it will be more like copying phrase by phrase.

 

Old time telegraphers used to say that their "alphabet" was words. That is, they had a wide working vocabulary of words that they instantly recognized when they heard them. When they heard a word coming in on the line in code, they heard the word, not the individual letters, unless it was some proper name or something unusual that they had to spell out. They had a familiarity with words. That is why one of them, who also was a well-known teacher of Morse code, said that by listening and re-listening over and over again to the same recorded code tapes of regular English text, this will help us to become intimately familiar with the words -- that is, over-learning. We need to get familiar with words as they sound in code.

 

Conquering Our Fears of Losing Out
Law 3- if you miss something: condition yourself to skip it. Keep copying everything you recognize instantly and easily and shrug off the holes left over. You'll soon be surprised to find the holes gradually filling up. If you are frightened you lose much of your ability to copy code well and --surprisingly --your sending speed also tends to go up (as much as 25%). The parts of brain that copy normally are pretty much shut down.

 

At first it may not be easy to let go, and allow some characters or words, which we can't quite consciously identify, pass by. That doesn't mean we stop listening or paying attention: it means we are learning to trust the mind to store them safely in its immediate, retrievable memory and not get panicky or confused because we are not conscious that they are there. So, especially in practice, if you miss a few letters or a word here or there, don't worry.

 

Overcome this fear by just continuing to go ahead -- including more practice on the sticky characters -- and you will surprise yourself to find you will recall them. Because our fear of losing out is the greatest barrier to copying behind, Candler devised some special exercises to help us get started with a minimum of strain. It goes like this--- take a list of short words in two parallel columns, preferably words with about the same number of letters each, and:

 

a) With pencil or typewriter write down the first word in the first column while simultaneously spelling out loud the parallel word in the second column, and so on down the columns. (We may do it again, reversing the column order.) Try it with 2-letter words first, then longer words till you get the knack of it. -- As a useful variation, try sending the one word with your key while spelling the other out loud.

b) Have someone "read" easy printed matter to you by spelling out each word at a regular, even rate of speed and a level tone of voice. Don't begin writing the first word until the third starts, and keep on two words behind, and then if you wish, with three words behind, etc.
Finally you may repeat it using code instead of voice spelling. Do these exercises slowly enough that you don't feel rushed or have any fear of losing out. Don't do it too long at a time: a couple minutes at a time are enough to get the hang of it.

Other Suggestions - Finger Writing
Try some "copying" this way: -- sit as though were going to write, using your index finger instead of a pencil (or your hand as though you held a pencil), letting it rest lightly on paper while listening to the code. You may try it as motionless copying, not moving your finger, "copying in your head" only, or you may prefer to "write" with your finger. Either way, it can help wean us away from that baby step of letter-by-letter copying, and graduate us into seeing several letters or words as a unit in the mind's eye.

 

Once we've gotten the knack of it, we will discover that visualizing and holding the letters, even for just an instant, will help us to copy better and faster than the old on-the-edge way -- almost a reflex action. All this is training the mind to dig up the images of words that have already been sent. It will develop a sort of automatic response: ears, mind, hand all coordinating together. Remember: to ignore any errors, not to work too long at a time, and -- don't forget: you're just practicing. So give yourself a chance. In learning to copy on typewriter, go slowly at first. You may find it easier to use either caps or lower case altogether at first. Until the typewriter became practical old time Morse telegraphers copied all messages with pen and ink in beautiful longhand up to 30 - 35 wpm -- solid deliverable copy, while a real good operator using a mill later could take 50 -60 wpm without overextending himself. Most copied 5 - 6 words behind to do this. (OT bulletin Jn 92 p 13)

 

How Long Shall I Practice?
Until you have gained considerable skill in copying, avoid working too long at a time. But after this point it is good to practice copying for longer periods without fatigue. When you have reached a fair speed, long copying practice can be helpful because by the time we are getting somewhat tired, our subconscious mind is translating the dits and dahs so that we do not feel that terrific mental strain that is the cause of guessing at certain letters. Under these conditions one can copy page after page and not be aware of a single sentence in it.

 

Fading - Static - Interference - Poor "Fists"
In the old days when all ships used spark only it took a lot of concentration and skill to copy a station a thousand miles away when another ship 150 miles away was transmitting. When there were static crashes it was hard (and they also often sounded like parts of code letters). Learning to copy a weak station through static and interference and fading is an art in itself, and to master it takes quite a bit of practice. It taxes the skill of the operator to the utmost, as it is often necessary to retune the receiver and go back and fill in missing letters in the copy without actually losing a word of a signal that can hardly be read. Signal fading is something to contend with, but during practice even that may prove to be a benefit to us. Copy what you do hear and leave a space for what you can't. It can help us learn to ignore lost sounds.

 

Quality of sending and on-the-air receiving conditions have a marked effect on copyability. An operator who can copy solid code at 25-wpm may drop to about 15-wpm when static or interference is present. Bursts of static can take out gobs of information. Old time commercial operators copied solid right through static, interference and fading so bad that others had to ask for repeats, and they kept right on copying when most us wouldn't even have heard the signal at all. Their jobs depended on it. That is skill, and CW does get through. Some hams have learned to do this just as skillfully -- they have learned to copy signals against intolerable background noise, noise to signal ratios of 10 dB or more.

 

It takes practice and patience to learn to hear the weak stations under the loud ones, but we can learn to copy a weak station buried under several strong ones. This is a truly remarkable ability of the human operator: to read incredibly weak signals in the face of strong distractions. It does take concentration, and the advancing operator should be developing some of it. Bum "fists", bad sending, is something else again. A skilled operator who can copy solid at 50-wpm with good quality sending might be able to copy only at 10-wpm with poor spacing, poor rhythm or poor weighting.

 

Correcting Imperfect Copy
Holes and errors in one-time copy can often be corrected, whether they originated in the sending or receiving (including interference, etc.), by rereading and analyzing the entire message. Look for key words, clause and sentence boundaries, linking words, etc., for clues. The context can help greatly in filling in and correcting things. Where a word is strange, look for the letter which might have been warped, mis-sent or mis-heard. Examining our practice copy in this way can also be a valuable tool and encouragement as we are learning.

 

Other Observations
At the expert stage where copying is automatic, the most common copying error is said to be getting so personally interested in what is being received that we begin to anticipate what is coming next, and then if it turns out to be something unexpected, we may lose out something. Learning to copy on the "mill" (typewriter) without knowing what is being copied was actually used during WW2 in Africa, when operators were in short supply. Native Africans, who knew no English at all, were taught to associate each code signal with its corresponding typewriter key. They quickly learned to hear the character and punch the proper keys, and became quite proficient.

 

When making notes just for our own use, we don't need to copy every single letter or word-- we can use any kind of shorthand or abbreviations we know, such as "rcvr" for receiver, "ant" for antenna, etc., just enough to remind us later. The extra time lets us take it easy.

 

During WW-II many operators found it was no more difficult to copy code by pencil in block letters at 25-wpm than copying English text at the same speed. Some of those messages lasted over an hour! But proficiency in copying coded groups can be a detriment to copying plain language. Coded groups are usually exactly so-many (usually 5) letters long, but plain language words are expected by the operator to vary in length. When such an operator moved from coded groups to plain language operation, he often tended to split the words into 5 character groups. Background music or other soft rhythmic sounds, which do not distract, have sometimes been found useful to relieve the tedium for high-speed operators making lots of copy.

 

98 of The 100 Most Common Words Arranged for Candler's Practice:

 

go he and how been into great about first their before should am if man any some very other shall could which little people me an him its then what every these would there on us out may like than by or not are well more to in but now made will of do was had work must up is can two when they as be one the over said so at who for have come she our such them it my has men only that all his time this no we say her your from were upon

Chapter 9

Sending and the "Straight" Key - Part I

 

Quality of Sending

 

RULE ONE: Never send faster than you can send accurately.
Quality must always come first, and speed second. Stated another way -- It is more blessed to send good code than to receive it. Aim to make your sending as nearly perfect as possible. Smooth, uniform characters and spacing penetrate static and interference far better than individual sending styles. We should learn to send so clearly and accurately that the receiving operator gets perfect copy every time. (Most of the difficulty in reading and copying code is due to irregularities in spacing between letters and words. See Chapter 15, Timing.)

 

"Over 50 years ago as a trainee" said one commercial operator, "I was told that it is better to send at 20 wpm, and be received 100% the first time, than to send at 28-wpm and waste time with repeats."

 

RULE TWO: Never send faster than you can receive properly.
Break either rule, and you may end up sending poorly formed characters or a choppy, jerky style that is hard to copy, and establish a habit that will be very difficult to overcome later. Bad sending is not cured by changing keys, but by correcting wrong mental impressions.

 

Keying And What It Means
The genius of the Morse code lies in its simple modulation requirements -- only two "states" are needed: 0 and 1 (binary code). These two states may be any sort of distinct differences in condition or quality of the modulation: ON\OFF, and for electrical and audio signals may include pitch and quality, as well. This greatly simplifies the equipment required for transmission and reception. Any form of two-position switch which can be operated at a satisfactory rate of speed by a human operator or mechanical or electrical device will serve the purpose. For electrical and radio telegraphic communication the switch may simply control the "on" and "off" conditions (single-pole-single-throw switch).

 

This opens a wide range of possibilities for mechanical designs, the simplest being just touching two wires together and separating them (which has served in emergencies), to electronic "switches" which have no mechanically moving parts, but rather control their conductivity between very high and low values by electronic means. For code transmission we generally call such switches "keys", "keyers", or "keying devices". In this chapter we are primarily concerned with hand keying, that is, using the simple up-and-down hand key "straight key". (See Chapter 10 for other types and their use.)

 

The First Morse Key
Alfred Vail designed the first "straight" key and called it a "correspondent". It consisted of a board on which was mounted a simple flat metal strap spring attached to the board at one end and on the other end having a small knob on its top side and an electrical contact on its bottom side. This contact was arranged so that when the knob was depressed it would make connection with a second contact mounted directly below it on the board, thus permitting the closing and opening of a circuit. When the pressure was released the spring caused the circuit to open again. It had no stops or adjustments of any kind.

 

This "classic" pattern of up-and-down movement has governed the design of all "standard" keys ever since. Later models have simply been "improvements", variations and elaborations of this basic concept.

 

Recommendations To The Beginner
Sending with any kind of hand-operated key is an art that takes some time and practice to develop properly. For this reason some teachers today recommend that, if possible, the beginner start out sending preferably with a keyboard (or code-programmed computer). With a keyboard it is impossible to send poorly formed characters. A keyboard is a typewriter-like device, which produces the code character corresponding to the key pressed. There is no way you can misform a character with a keyboard -- you can only push the wrong button. (See Chapter 10.)

 

A keyer (see Chapter 10) always produces perfectly timed signal elements and inter-element spacings. However, the operator must control the sequence of the spacing of letters and words. This requires considerable skill and may discourage the beginner. It is easy to send well-formed characters, but unintended or even non-existent ones may also be created. Therefore it seems wisest to begin learning to send with either a straight key or a keyboard. (A straight key does help to reinforce the rhythm patterns of the characters more effectively.) In any event, it is well for the beginner to heed the advice of a wise teacher who said: - "Do not touch a hand-key at any time until I tell you that you may."

 

This advice has a two-fold purpose:

1) to make sure that the student has an accurate mental impression of the correct sound and rhythm of the code characters before trying to send them, and

2) listening to one's own poor sending may actually hinder learning (as noted in Chapter 3).

 

So the best way is not to touch a key until you have developed a good feel for the proper rhythm of the letters. This usually means by the time you can receive at about 10 -12 wpm or more. When you begin with a straight key you must have a good feel for timing -- that is, the three building blocks of code: the dit, the dah and the several lengths of spaces. (Those who have poor hand control should avoid the use of any handkeys, at least while they are gaining in receiving skill.)

 

After you have learned the proper rhythms, sending with a straight-key, whether for practice or in actual use, sending with it is quite beneficial for building up your receiving ability in all its aspects. In addition it develops muscular memories which further strengthen our perception and recognition of characters and words. Constant practice in sending this way does help build our copying ability. Sending practice also prepares the hand and arm for transmitting over long periods of time without fatigue. Finger and arm exercises may also be devised to help gain needed flexibility and strength.

 

The "Straight" Key
A standard "straight" key is one having a simple up-and-down movement. In American usage the key should be aligned so that key lever is in a straight line with the forearm. To control it, the operator moves the knob by a pivoting up-and-down wrist motion. (The hand and arm muscles do not favor the very small movements needed to control key motion.) The design of a key, its location on the operating table and manipulation tend to vary from country to country, and its adjustments in the final analysis depend almost entirely on the references of the individual operator. Here we can only give the generalities and some instructions by experienced users.

 

The American Straight Key And Its Use
The key lever is generally relatively thin and typically pivoted so that its front section is longer than the back section, and often droops downward toward the knob end. Its control knob is flat on top and may have an underskirt (originally designed to protect the operator from high voltages on the key lever). The top of the knob should be about 1-1/2 to 2 inches above the table, and have firm adjustments for up-and-down movement (nominally about 1/16 inch movement at the knob, but adjusted to whatever suits the operator best).

 

The key should be located far enough back from the edge of the operating table (about 18 inches) that the elbow is just off the edge of the table. The operator's arm rests lightly on the table with his wrist off the table and more or less "flat". His first finger rests on the top of the key knob and his second finger generally on top near the edge. His thumb may rest lightly against the other edge of the knob, or not touch it at all. (The student should find his own most comfortable way.) Downward movement of the knob to close the key and upward movement to open it are by rocking the hand, pivoting it from the wrist: the finger end moving down while the wrist moves slightly upward, and vice-versa, without any accompanying independent finger motion. The upward key knob movement is produced by the built-in spring in the key, but may be helped by the thumb.

 

Walter Candler's advice to professional telegraphers in training (to avoid developing a painful "glass arm") was:

 

· Hold the knob between the thumb and first two fingers much as you would hold a pencil. Hold it firmly, but do not squeeze it or let go of it while sending.

· The wrist -- not the fingers or the whole arm -- does the work as the key goes down and up. Keep the wrist off the table.

· Take care of the sending arm -- the forearm muscle carries the weight of the arm. Otherwise, keep the arm itself relaxed and at ease as you move the key down and up. -- Immediately below the elbow on the lower side of the arm there is a nerve which comes close to the surface. If that nerve presses against the table it may begin to make the arm cramp and produce telegrapher's paralysis ("glass arm" or writer's cramp). If this happens put a soft pad under it there to relieve this condition.

· There is no need to waste energy on springs. The key return spring does not need to be stiff -- just enough to keep the contacts apart.

· Contacts should be spaced only wide enough apart to be easily opened and closed. A key is obviously a highly personal object. Every one who has gotten his own key adjusted till it feels just right will be uncomfortable and fail to send as well if he uses a different key, even though it looks exactly like his own. If you set up two different keys of identical design, with the same tension, and gaps, they will nevertheless "feel" different. They are as individual as violins.

Gaining Skill, Errors, and Automaticity
For the skilled telegrapher the characters and words flow without conscious thought as to their details. Proper and adequate practice has made the action habitual, automatic and virtually effortless -- almost like just talking. However, if something interferes, the conscious mind jumps in and tries to make the correction and take over control. If this conscious interference continues, it may displace the habitual coordination, resulting in expending more effort than needed to send accurately. This in turn produces strain, and soon one finds he working against himself and (with a straight key) if he sends for long periods of time this may develop into "glass arm". (See Walter Candler's Advice) The master operator does not send a single needless dit or dah.

 

What About Mistakes Made During Sending? If you make a mistake while sending, just correct it, if necessary, then forget it and calmly continue on. Don't let ourself get all tensed up and start to worry about making more mistakes (such as: "Now I mustn't do that again!"). If this keeps bothering you, focus your attention for a just few moments on sending each word (or maybe even each letter) as it comes along, sending evenly and with proper spacing, and then go on normally as if nothing happened. This will help create a positive, constructive attitude rather than a negative one. As for correcting mistakes, general practice varies: -- eight dits (like HH sent without space between the letters) is the official standard, but it is more common to use the question mark and then send the word (or with the preceding word also) again correctly. If you are chewing the rag, you may just a pause a moment and then repeat what was sent wrongly and go on. On the other hand, since it is usually the beginnings of words that are most important, if enough of the word has been correctly sent to be recognizable it may be best just to pause a moment and then proceed without comment. We wouldn't do this, of course, in the midst of a formal message.

 

Personal Characteristics - Fists
All sending with any kind of a handkey will show little personal quirks, or characteristics collectively called one's "fist", which unconsciously develop as one's skill and experience grows, no matter how precise an operator may try to be. This is why a receiving operator may immediately recognize a sender and say: "I know that fist," even before he identifies himself. Our fist may also betray our mood or state of mind -- excitement, fatigue, boredom or laziness -- much as our tone of voice often does.

 

Someone said of one operator: "his code almost seems to yawn". But there is more to it than that. The type of hand-key being used which may also affect the sending. This does not mean that high quality code cannot be made on any of these types of keys, but rather that their particular construction and use tend to produce certain characteristics.

 

With a straight key, side-swiper or bug it is easy to send a jerky or "choppy" sort of code, as well as to make inconsistently longer or shorter dits or dahs overall or in certain characters. A common fault with using a bug is to make the dits too fast as compared with the dahs. Sideswipers tend to encourage to some very oddly timed characters, inconsistent formations. The type of key in use may greatly influence one's fist as it sounds to the receiving operator.

Chapter 9

Sending and the "Straight" Key - Part II

 

Keys
The design of the key and where it is placed on the operating table are important for comfort and ease of operation. The height of the knob or paddle or its feel may not feel quite right, or the key movement may be too much or too little, or be too stiff or too soft. (One British examiner said of candidates coming for their sending test: "It never ceases to amaze examiners that some candidates come for a Morse test without one [their own].

 

Attempting to send perfect Morse on a strange key is an obstacle that candidates should never burden themselves with on the day of the test.") -- How does this key "feel"? Could I enjoy using it? One skilled operator said: "When using a new key, for a few weeks all is well, and I love it. Then, suddenly, I hate it. Then I try another... yes, the cycle repeats itself! Why do I feel this way?" -- It is not hard to see why some commercial operators always took their keys home with them or locked them up! Nor is it surprising that the absolutely inviolable rule of the old time telegraph office was: Never, never, never, under any circumstances whatever, touch the adjustments of another man's key.

 

Not only the key itself, but also the height of the table on which it rests can also be an important factor. Some have, often out of sheer necessity, used a key mounted on their leg, on a handle, etc. Cramped and awkward operating positions have often been necessary. And then there is the matter of what we are used to.

 

The Traditional British Key And Its Usage
The first impression of this type of key to an American is the massive ruggedness of its key lever and the height of its control knob. These notable features derive from a late 19th century Government Post Office design (they operated the telegraphs). Its key lever is a straight and heavy-looking brass bar pivoted somewhat toward the rear of the mid-point. The major part of the weight of the lever works against the return spring. Its control knob is smoothly contoured and generally resembles a wooden drawer-pull, somewhat pear-shaped, or crank-handle shaped, usually with a distinctly rounded top surface. Its diameter swells from its base to a maximum somewhat below the top. Its maximum diameter is similar to or may be somewhat greater than the typical American key knob. All versions are taller than the typical American knob.

 

The net effect of its straight lever and taller knob means that in controlling this key it is not suitable for any part of the arm to rest on the operating table. Therefore it is typically mounted so that its knob is close to the edge of the table, with the arm extending out fairly high in front of the table.

 

As the years have gone by there have been many variations of this type of key, different spring arrangements, different dimension ratios, different knob contours, bearing supports, etc., but the heavy style lever and high knob have remained as more or less permanent characteristics.

 

The traditional way of using this type of key is:

· to hold the key knob with the first finger on top, the thumb underneath its maximum diameter on the one side, and the third finger on the opposite side from the thumb;

· the operator's lower arm extends outward approximately in line with the key lever (horizontally and vertically), unsupported by the table, several inches from the side of the body, and forming an angle of approximately 90 degrees relative to the upper arm;

· the main keying movement is at the wrist, not at the fingertips, with the wrist acting as a hinge between the arm and the hand.

 

The hand, wrist and arm are not strained or rigid, in spite of the seemingly awkward appearance of such an operator's arm position to us in America. Beginners usually adjust the key for a large gap so as to hear the sound of the key closing and opening. They generally reduce this gap as their speed increases (some reduce it to the barest minimum). Some operators control the knob delicately with their fingertips, while others grip it with the whole hand. Again, some operators prefer very light spring force and use the thumb to help open the key by their wrist movement; others rely entirely on the spring return action.

 

As the beginners progress, they adapt their keying style to whatever is comfortable to them individually. There are many variations in adjustment, depending on the particular key design details and the operator's preferences. The Australians and New Zealanders appear to have followed the British practice, but other European countries have not necessarily done so. Australians have said they found it very hard to send properly with the American keys -- with their flat topped key-knobs, located far back from the edge of the table -- as installed in air-ground-air stations during WW-II. They called these keying arrangements "a flaming nuisance!" In summary, with all these variations in basic and detail design, it seems obvious that there must be more than one way to design a good key and use it.

 

Using A Straight Key
It is, of course, impossible to send absolutely perfect code with any purely manual device, but we should learn to imitate perfect sending as best we can. If you have an instructor, he should demonstrate quality sending for you to imitate something like this, for example: "Listen as I send the character... and then you say its name as you send it back to me just like you hear it." This is repeated several times until the teacher is satisfied, and so on throughout the alphabet and numbers during the early sending-practice periods.

 

Another way, which can be used without a teacher, is to use split headphones: one phone carries the recorded code signals, while the other phone lets the student hear his own sending using an oscillator as he reads from a printed copy of the recorded text. He endeavors to send in unison, and can compare his own sending with that of the recording.

 

There is at least one computer teaching program (see below) which has an option which will evaluate the learner's sending.

 

Most teachers recommend beginning with relatively slow hand movements. About 12 consciously controlled hand movements per second is average, but some people cannot exceed 10. It is the often-repeated reversals, which limit performance. Total reaction time from external instruction until the hand reacts is about 150-200 milliseconds (ear- or eye-brain-muscle). Responses must be much faster than this for sending code, playing the piano, etc. This is where the automatic mental functions take over.

 

A good beginning practice with a straight key is to make a string of dits at a slow, even rate for a minute or two, and then gradually to speed up to a comfortable rate. Then send a series of 20 - 30 S's evenly and smoothly, with proper spaces between them. After that, send a corresponding string of dahs, followed by 20 or more O's the same way. This will develop a proper feel and a sense of control of the key. After that, try a short sentence in a slow and uniform way, with wide spaces between letters and words, something like:

"I a l w a y s s e n d e v e n l y a n d s m o o t h l y"

 

Try this several times, gradually shortening the spaces until they are about normal. Listen as you send it for accuracy of timing. Try recording it so you can listen later to it without distraction and evaluate how it sounds to others.

 

With a clear, easy and correct style of sending it will take about ten minutes to get warmed up, and from then on you should be able to send for a long time without the slightest discomfort. A reasonably good operator can learn to send good quality International Morse on a straight key up to 20 - 25 wpm. Some can make 30-wpm, but 35-wpm seems to be about the absolute limit (equivalent to about 45-wpm for American Morse). On the other hand, don't assume that just because you can receive at say 25 wpm you can send well at that speed. What isn't intelligible isn't worth sending.

 

"Glass Arm"
Candler's description of Telegrapher's "Glass arm," or " telegrapher's paralysis," is:

 

A progressive and painful forearm condition where the arm gradually loses its former snap and responsiveness, and the dits become difficult to send correctly at one's customary speeds due to partial loss of control.

 

Fatigue sets in early and sending becomes "rotten", leading to discouragement or distressing irritation. It may or may not begin with a sensitiveness, which soon subsides, but true glass arm has neither inflammation nor soreness. This condition is caused by needless strain or tension or poor key handling, and is avoidable. Factors which may lead to it are:

 

· poor posture,

· holding the arm in an unnatural or uncomfortable position, so that blood circulation and nerve functioning are interfered with, making the hand uncomfortable, cold or clammy,

· undue pressure of the underarm on the table,

· unduly long periods of sending, confinement or lowered body tone which induce muscle strain and tension,

· conscious interference with normal automatic habitual control, or

· even the suggestion that by prolonged use the arm will ultimately fail.

 

All these may be prevented or relieved by proper mental and physical corrections. Some have found relief by rotating the key to use a sideways movement. Others cured it by going to a sideswiper, or more often by going to a "bug". Candler said that a false glass arm may occur when some infection is present which produces pain in the wrist, forearm, back and neck and/or headaches. Its cure is obvious.

 

Tests for Proper Operation of a Hand-Key
For the beginner everything will be easier if any serious faults are caught early, before they become habits. There are two general kinds of tests for an operator's sending ability. One concerns the quality of his sending, its readability, and the other concerns his endurance and comfort. Quality of sending may be evaluated in several ways. It is a good idea to record some of your own sending occasionally and let it sit a day or so and then to listen and see what it sounds like-- is it easily readable? A rougher way is to gage by the comments of receiving operators (or by the number of times a repeat is requested). This is strongly suggested also for bug operators.

 

There are several computer programs to evaluate one's sending against the ideal. One of the excellent ones is Gary Bold's diagnostic program, DK.BAS, designed for this purpose, which runs under QBASIC, a part of his Morse teaching software. (See Chapter 18) Looking at your own sending may be very humbling, but this program will show exactly what's wrong, and tell what you exactly what you need to do to improve it.

 

A typical comment of those using it is: -- "My sending can't really be that badly, can it?" But after taking DK.BAS’s advice, the same operator said: "Actually the whole episode was quite enlightening, as I found that after a number of attempts I had improved to the extent that I and the computer parted company on speaking terms at least". If you are sure there's something wrong, but can't quite put your finger on it, let such a program find it for you. Your sending will really sound better if you concentrate on making the improvements indicated.

 

An excellent test for endurance and comfort is to sit down and send straight reading matter at a comfortable speed of from say 15 - 25 wpm for about an hour. It will take about ten minutes to get the fist limbered up, and if one has cultivated that clear, easy and correct style of sending that is so desirable, from then on one can send for a long period of time without experiencing the slightest discomfort. On the other hand, if the fundamental principles of correct key manipulation have not been learned, one may just 'blow up' after the first 15 minutes with a hand too jerky, and a wrist too sore to want to go on. That says, take a look for what you're doing wrong.

 

What Is It That Makes a Good Hand-Key?
Ease of operation and positive control are prime considerations for any hand operated key. The first Morse key (called "correspondent") was designed just to the minimum needed to do the job. Later designs took into account other factors as well, including ease of use and appearance. In the early days of high-powered wireless (spark) stations function again took over and these keys were awkward, massive things in order to handle the huge currents involved.

 

A good key lever should pivot freely without detectable friction, and at the knob or paddle there should be no perceptible movement in any direction except that for normal keying. The return spring should be adjustable for best control (some recommend 250 - 400 grams pressure range for a straight key). This spring should not be so stiff that sending is choppy, or so weak that signals tend to run together, but always adequate to open the circuit by itself without assistance from the operator.

 

For a given rate of keying, the force required is a function of the spring, gap setting and the inertia of the moving parts. The key lever should be stiff enough to give a firm contact without noticeable vibration or bounce (no double contact). Bearings should be solid at all times. (Firm electrical contact is best made with a flexible wire rather than depending on the bearing points.) The return spring should have adequate adjustment range to satisfy operator preferences. Gap setting should give a firm feel and have a wide enough adjustment range for personal comfort. Is there a key design that is universally "ideal"? -- My impression is that well-accepted keys show a wide variety of design details to meet preferences.

 

Is this telling us that it isn't the design of a key per se that makes it "feel right", but rather that it is what we are familiar with and are used to? It feels comfortable partly due to national- historical and partly personal preferences. For some unknown reason, short or small keys have not been popular, although sometimes necessary. What a key is mounted upon -- a wooden table, one's leg, a concrete block, etc. -- and how it is mounted can make a great deal of difference in how it feels. It may feel "great" or "responsive" or "dead" or have disturbing vibrations. These are all factors that are partly hardware, partly psychological and quite personal.

Chapter 10

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