Distribution of yodelling in non-Alpine contexts.

By the beginning of the 19th century, the yodel had gained popularity and had been introduced to the cities by travelling ‘natural’ and ‘Alpine’ singers and by national singing societies and singer families from the Tyrol (Zillertal), Styria and Carinthia. Travelling entertainers spread the ‘yodelling style’ in presenting a combination of songs and yodels in popular Viennese theatrical plays. Owing to international cultural contact, the presence of enthusiasts in different cultures and especially the influence of various forms of disseminating media, Alpine-like yodelling can be found in the most diverse countries, including Japan and Korea. In Tokyo the Japanese Jodler-Alpen-Kameraden enthusiastically cultivate this special vocal technique. In Seoul the first yodelling club was established in 1969, and the Korean Yodel Association was founded in 1979.

(i) Cowboy yodellers.

In America groups of immigrants and their descendents yodel in Bavarian, Austrian or Swiss fashion. Numerous traditional cowboy songs of the 19th century end with a yodel refrain, such as the well-known song The Old Chisholm Trail, sung by cowboys as they drove herds on the trail between Texas and Kansas. The image of the yodelling cowboy was spread by musical events at rodeos, radio shows (such as ‘Melody Ranch’ featuring the Oklahoma Yodelling Cowboy, Gene Autry), records and Hollywood westerns. Among these yodelling cowboys, Jimmie Rodgers (1897–1933) became an important figure. Known as ‘Mississippi Railroad Man’, ‘Yodeling Ranger’ and the ‘Blue Yodeler’, he developed (more than any other) the fine points of the yodel song: the change of timbre according to register, abrupt glottal stops and gentle slurring. Accompanying himself on his ‘round-up guitar’, Rodgers became known as the ‘Father of Country Music’ and his influence stretched from the West to the East Coast of the United States. Yodelin’ Slim Clark (b 1917), who was born in Massachusetts and lives today in Maine, regards himself as a direct successor to the tradition of Rodgers (and Wilf Carter) and calls himself the ‘last real singing cowboy’.

(ii) Yodel-like singing.

This can be found not only in Central European Alpine regions, but also in many mountainous and forest regions of other geographic areas. In the polyphonic songs of the Tosks of Albania, two yodel-like voices are accompanied by a sung drone. In Georgia, vocal polyphony as a harmonic basis to a higher ‘yodelling’ voice is known as krimanchuli (see Georgia, §II, 1(ii)).

Related vocal techniques can also be found in different African countries such as Ethiopia, Rwanda, Zaïre, Angola, Burundi, Gabon and others. Among the Khoisan and the ¡Kung, hunters and gatherers of southern Angola, for example, a canon-like technique of imitation using one to four yodelling voices is used during which the relative positions of the voices vary and contrapuntal-like effects are produced. The Aka yodellers stand out in that they produce four to six or even 13 overtones in the ‘high register’. In the ‘deep register’, on the other hand, the tones display a sound spectrum of homogeneous overtones with greater intensity; however the fundamental tone is hardly existent or only very weak (Fürniss, 1992, pp.79–83)

Yodel-like melodies and songs can also be found in Asiatic countries and in the boundary region between Melanesia and Polynesia. In the southern highlands of Papua New Guinea, the Huli have two kinds of yodel-like songs: the soloistic and alternating falsetto song (u) of the men and the repetitive and yodel-like singing with fixed timbre (iwa) performed during work. On Savo in the Solomon Islands, in reference to the solo voice it is said that one takes the song deep (neo laua) when singing with chest voice and one uses a high voice (taga laua) when changing register and singing with falsetto. In addition to three-voice polyphony, the sudden register change of two solo voices is quite characteristic. These are also supported by a vocal drone (see Melanesia, §5(ii)).

Falsetto and calls, screams and ululation that alternate between the normal register and falsetto are important among most Indian groups found in North and South America. Among the Bororo in Brazil, the ‘o-ie o-ie i-go’ vocalization found in hunting songs is characterized by additional elements of a yodel-like larynx technique. With additional comparative research in the future, perhaps the concept of yodelling will be extended in its details. It has already been established that yodel-like singing need not necessarily be tied to large intervals. As sonographic research has shown, two ‘different’ pitches (one in chest register and the other in falsetto register) can have a common fundamental tone and still belong to different registers (Fürniss, 1992, p.90).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (‘Jodel’; W. Wiora)

MGG2 (‘Jodel’; M.P. Baumann)

J. and W. Grimm: ‘Jodeln’, Deutsches Wörterbuch, iv/2 (Leipzig, 1877/R)

A. Tobler: Kühreihen oder Kühreigen, Jodel und Jodellied in Appenzell (Leipzig and Zürich,1890)

J. Pommer: 444 Jodler und Juchezer aus Steiermark und dem steirisch-österreichischen Grenzgebiet (Vienna, 1902/R)

E.M. von Hornbostel: ‘Die Entstehung des Jodelns’, Deutsche Musikgesellschaft: Kongress I: Leipzig 1925, 203–10

T. Lehtisalo: ‘Beobachtungen über die Jodler’, Suomalais-ugrilaisen seuran aikakauskirja: Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne, xxxviii (1936), 1–35

H. Pommer: Jodeler des deutschen Alpenvolkes (Leipzig, 1936)

W. Sichardt: Der alpenländische Jodler und der Ursprung des Jodelns (Berlin, 1939)

R. Luchsinger: ‘Die Jodelstimme’, Lehrbuch der Stimm- und Sprachheilkunde (Vienna, 1949, enlarged 3/1970; Eng. trans., 1965, as Voice, Speech, Language), 222–6

W. Wiora: ‘Juchschrei, Juchzer und Jodeln’, Zur Frühgeschichte der Musik in den Alpenländern (Basle, 1949), 20–38

G. Kotek: ‘Über die Jodler und Juchezer in den österreichischen Alpen’, Jb des österreichischen Alpenvereins, lxxxv (1960), 178–90

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K. Horak: ‘Der Jodler in Tirol’, Jb des österreichischen Volksliedwerkes, xiii (1964), 78–94

W. Graf: ‘Naturwissenschaftliche Gedanken über das Jodeln: die phonetische Bedeutung der Jodelsilben’, Schriften des Vereins zur Verbreitung naturwissenschaftlicher Kenntnisse in Wien, cv (1965), 1–25; repr. in Ausgewählte Aufsätze, ed. F. Födermayr (Vienna, 1980), 202–10

H. Curjel: Der Jodel in der Schweiz (Zürich, 1970)

W. Deutsch: ‘Der Jodler in Österreich’, Handbuch des Volksliedes, ii, ed. R.W. Brednich, L. Röhrich and W. Suppan (Munich, 1975), 647–67

W. Graf: ‘Sonographische Untersuchungen’, Handbuch des Volksliedes, ii, ed. R.W. Brednich, L. Röhrich and W. Suppan (Munich, 1975), 583–622

M.P. Baumann: Musikfolklore und Musikfolklorismus: eine ethnomusikologische Untersuchung zum Funktionswandel des Jodels (Winterthur, 1976)

A. Lüderwaldt: Joiken aus Norwegen: Studien zur Charakteristik und gesellschaftlichen Bedeutung des lappischen Gesanges (Bremen, 1976)

G. Thoma: Die Kunst des Jodelns: Alpenländnische Jodelschule (Munich, 1977)

H. Hummer: ‘Der Jodeler in Salzburg’, Die Volksmusik im Lande Salzburg, ed. W. Deutsch and H. Dengg (Vienna, 1979), 136–50

M.P. Baumann: Bibliographie zur ethnomusikologischen Literatur der Schweiz (Winterthur, 1981)

H.J. Leuthold: Der Naturjodel in der Schweiz: Entstehung, Charakteristik, Verbreitung (Altdorf, 1981)

C. Luchner-Löscher: Der Jodler: Wesen, Entstehung, Verbreitung und Gestalt (Munich, 1982)

H. Zemp: ‘Filming Music and Looking at Music Films’, EthM, xxxii (1988), 393–427

H. Zemp: ‘Visualizing Music Structure through Animation: the Making of the Film “Head Voice, Chest Voice”’, Visual Anthropology, iii (1990), 65–79

S. Fürniss: ‘La technique du jodel chez les Pygmées Aka (Centrafrique): étude phonétique et acoustique’, Cahiers de musiques traditionelles, iv (1991), 167–87

S. Fürniss: Die Jodeltechnik der Aka-Pygmäen in Zentralafrika: eine akustisch-phonetische Untersuchung (Berlin, 1992)

F. Födermayr: ‘Zur Jodeltechnik von Jimmie Rodgers: the Blue Yodel’, For Gerhard Kubik: Festschrift, ed. A. Schmidhofer and D. Schuller (Frankfurt, 1994), 381–404

MAX PETER BAUMANN

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