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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Quinziani, Giulio Cesare.
See Quintiani, Giulio Cesare. Quinziani, Lucrezio. See Quintiani, Lucrezio. Quire. An archaic spelling of the word Choir (ii). Quiros [Quiroz], Manuel José [Joseph] de (d Guatemala, 1765). Guatemalan composer, teacher and collector. He was appointed maestro de capilla of Guatemala City Cathedral on 7 March 1738, and served there until his death. His 28 extant compositions, which survive only in the Archivo Histórico Arquidiocesano ‘Francisco de Paula García Peláez’, Guatemala City, are mainly Spanish villancicos which reveal his interest in local colour and ethnic texts. There are also a few compositions in Latin, including a double-choir motet, Parce mihi, Domine. Most works are for two or four voices, some for as many as seven; all have instrumental accompaniment. Quiros was also active as a teacher and collector of music. His pupils included his nephew Rafael Antonio Castellanos, who succeeded him as maestro de capilla in Guatemala. His interest in Italian music was encouraged by the Italian-born maestro de capilla of Mexico City, Ignacio Jerusalem, and he acquired works by several Italian composers of the period, including Galuppi, Leo, Pergolesi, Porpora and Vinci. He also collected music by contemporary Spanish composers such as Sebastián Durón, José Nebra and José de Torres y Martínez Bravo, and by composers from elsewhere in the New World, for example Manuel de Zumaya. Through his efforts, copies were made of 16th-century polyphonic music by Iberian composers such as Gaspar Fernandes and Pedro Bermúdez, and also of works by Palestrina and Victoria. The music collected and copied remains in the Archivo Histórico Arquidiocesano. Quiros’s brother, Francisco de Quiros, was also a composer. Works by him survive in the Archivo Histórico Arquidiocesano. BIBLIOGRAPHY R. Stevenson: Renaissance and Baroque Musical Sources in the Americas (Washington DC, 1970) R. Stevenson: ‘Guatemala Cathedral to 1803’, Inter-American Music Review, ii/2 (1979–80), 27–72 A.E. Lemmon: ‘Manuel Joseph Quiros and Rafael Antonio Castellanos: maestri de capilla of Guatemala’, Mesoamerica, v (1984), 389–401 A.E. Lemmon: La música de Guatemala en el siglo XVIII (South Woodstock, VT, and Antigua, 1986) ALFRED E. LEMMON Quirsfeld, Johann (b Dresden, 22 July 1642; d Pirna, 18 June 1686). German composer, writer on music and clergyman. After taking the master's degree at the University of Wittenberg, he worked as Kantor of St Marien, the principal church at Pirna (near Dresden), from 1670 until his death. In 1679 he became, as deacon, a member of the clergy, and was subsequently made archdeacon. His first publication, Breviarium musicum (Pirna, 1675), is an elementary singing manual for school use; solmization is still dealt with, but Quirsfeld also accepted the use of letter names for notes as advocated by Ambrosius Profe in his Compendium musicum (1641). For the second edition (1683) Quirsfeld added 12 two-part canons to the musical appendix, which originally consisted of 12 fugues in the 12 modes. The book was reissued several times until at least 1717. Cornelis a Beughem (Biblioteca mathematica, Amsterdam, 1688, p.108) mentioned another treatise by Quirsfeld, Aurifodina mathematica de sono (Leipzig, 1675), which seems to be lost. A collection of Quirsfeld's musical works, Geistliche Hochzeit des Lammes aus vierzehn Kernsprüchen der Heiligen Schrift (Leipzig, 1677), contains 14 songs for solo voice and continuo (two melodies in ZahnM) on the subject of Christ as bridegroom. The dedicatees were four daughters of a patrician Leipzig family. Quirsfeld's Geistlicher Harffen-Klang (Leipzig, 1679) is a large hymnal containing 1003 texts with 263 melodies (four in ZahnM). Hymns for the festivals and on the Catechism, psalms, the liturgical year, the cross, repentance, thanksgiving, death and resurrection are included in its ten sections. Quirsfeld's preface refers to the triad as representing the Trinity and praises music as a God-given comfort for troubled souls. He contributed only three of the tunes himself; about half are from 16th-century collections and most of the rest from Johannes Crüger, who also provided the model for the setting for solo voice and bass. The hymnal, which includes many Pietistic texts, was still in use around the turn of the century. BIBLIOGRAPHY FétisB MGG1 (M. Ruhnke) WinterfeldEK ZahnM W. Nagel: ‘Die Kantoreigesellschaft zu Pirna’, MMg, xxvii (1895), 148–69 A. Schering: Musikgeschichte Leipzigs, ii: Von 1650 bis 1723 (Leipzig, 1926/R) H.J. Moser: Die evangelische Kirchenmusik in Deutschland (Berlin and Darmstadt, 1954) J. Lester: ‘Major-Minor Concepts and Modal Theory in Germany 1592–1680’, JAMS, xxx (1977), 208–53 DOROTHEA SCHRÖDER Quitaire [quitarre] (Fr.). See Gittern. See also Quinterne. Quitin, José(-François) (b Liège, 28 March 1915). Belgian musicologist. He studied music at the Liège Academy of Music and took a degree in education (1938; 1952, with dissertation) at the University of Liège. He was director of the academy (1945–52) and professor of music history at the Liège Conservatoire Royal (1946–79). He was also lecturer at the Catholic University of Louvain-la-Neuve (1979–82) and was for some time lecturer in music education at the Liège teachers’ training college. He has a lively interest in Walloon music and has organized concerts and written disc notes for the music of unknown Liège and other Walloon composers of the 16th–19th centuries. Through his enterprise the Société Liégeoise de Musicologie (originally founded in 1909) was re-formed in 1972, with some notable musicological articles and musical transcriptions appearing in the society’s quarterly bulletin that he founded. He has written on the teaching of music and on the history of music and musicians in Liège, particularly its church music of the 16th–18th centuries and its famous school of violinists of the 19th and 20th centuries. His works are the result of long teaching experience and painstaking research in ecclesiastical and other archives, and are well demonstrated in his transcriptions and performances of unpublished music. WRITINGS Eugène Ysäye (Brussels, 1938) ‘Un musicien liégeois, Léonard de Hodemont, c.1575–1636: notes biographiques’, Vie wallonne, xxv (1951), 27–45 ‘Lambert Pietkin, maître de chant de l’église cathédrale de Saint-Lambert, à Liège, 1613–96’, RBM, vi (1952), 31–51 ‘Les maîtres de chant de la cathédrale Saint-Lambert à Liège aux XVe et XVIe siècles’, RBM, viii (1954), 5–18 Les maîtres de chant et la maîtrise de la collégiale Saint-Denis, à Liège, au temps de Grétry (Brussels, 1964) ‘Orgues, organiers et organistes de l’église cathédrale Notre-Dame et Saint-Lambert à Liège aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles’, Bulletin de l’Institut archéologique liégeois, lxxx (1967), 5–58 ‘Untersuchungen über die Musikpflege Maastrichts im 16. Jahrhundert’, Beiträge zur Musikgeschichte der Stadt und des Kreises Erkelenz, i, ed. G. Göller and others, lxxiii (Cologne, 1968), 39–50 ‘A propos de trois musiciens liégeois du 16e siècle: Petit Jean de Latre, Johannes Mangon et Mathieu de Sayve’, Musicae scientiae collectanea: Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer, ed. H. Hüschen (Cologne, 1973), 451–62 ‘Jean de Gleize et ses successeurs, les triboleurs de Saint-Lambert, à Liège, aux VIIe et XVIIIe siècles’, RBM, xxxii-xxxiii (1978–9), 151–63 ‘A propos de trois inventaires de musique de la collégiale Notre-Dame de Huy datant du début du XVIIIe siècle’, RBM, xxxiv–xxxv (1980–81), 106–29 La musique à Liège entre deux révolutions, 1789–1830 (Liège, 1997) EDITIONS Les musiciens de Saint-Jean l’Evangéliste à Liège de Johannes Cicomia à Monsieur Babou vers 1400–vers 1710 (Werbomont, 1982) BIBLIOGRAPHY M. Haine and P. Vendrix: ‘Bibliographie de José-Quitin’, RBM, xlvii (1993), 29–42 A.-M. Mathy: ‘José Quitin: l'homme et l'oeuvre’, RBM, xlvii (1993), 7–28 GODELIEVE SPIESSENS/SYLVIE JANSSENS Quito. Capital of Ecuador. Before the Spanish conquest (1533) Quito was the northernmost outpost of the Inca Empire. As the favourite retreat of Huayna Capac (reigned 1493–1525) it shared the best traditions of Inca court music, panpipes being then as now favourite native ensemble instruments. The first teachers of European music at Quito, the Flemish Franciscans Josse de Rycke of Mechelen and Pierre Gosseal of Leuven, who arrived in 1534, taught the Indians to read music and play European instruments. At the Colegio de S Andrés (founded 1555) such difficult music as Guerrero’s 1570 collection of motets was sung before 1581. In the 17th century the Quito Franciscan church obtained a 600-pipe organ (completed 1638) and by 1651 boasted a musical culture equal to any in Europe, according to Diego de Córdova Salinas’s chronicle published that year at Lima. The most important 16th-century mestizo musician trained by the Franciscans was Diego Lobato (c1538–c1610); the Quito Cathedral authorities paid him 110 pesos a year from 1562 to 1568 for singing ‘polyphonic music at the choirbook stand when appropriate’ and also asked him to double as organist from 1563. On 3 April 1574 the Quito chapter appointed him maestro de capilla, commissioning him to compose new ‘motetes y chanzonetas’ for all the principal annual feasts. The splendour of cathedral music was further enhanced by a deed of 29 July 1580 stipulating that the Salve regina be sung polyphonically with organ every Saturday. Lobato continued as maestro de capilla until his death, except for a two-year period (1588–90) when Gutierre Fernández Hidalgo, the greatest South American musician of the epoch, occupied the post. In colonial Quito, as elsewhere in the Americas, royal commemorations were celebrated with great pomp. Francisco Coronel conducted the polyphony sung at Felipe III’s commemoration on 30 September 1621. For 70 years from 1653 Quito cathedral music was dominated by the Ortuño de Larrea family, except from 1682 to 1695 when the Hieronymite composer Manuel Blasco was imported from Bogotá to break the family monopoly. Blasco, the most eminent composer in Quito annals after Fernández Hidalgo, left a respectable body of music in the cathedral archive at Bogotá, including some notable versos for two shawms and organ and at least two villancicos at Quito, currently in private possession. The declining interest in prima pratica polyphony from 1708 onwards can be traced in the inventories of polyphonic choirbooks; the number declined from 35 to 20 by 1754, and after the disastrous earthquakes of 1755 and 1757 apparently dwindled to none. Bright instrumental ensembles became the rule at cathedral festivals and in local churches. These ensembles, according to the Compendiosa Relación de la Cristiandad de Quito by the knowledgeable Bernardo Recio (1714–91), included ‘flutes, oboes, trumpets, vihuelas, guitars, harps, harpsichords, violins and other bowed strings’ supported by organs. According to Recio, Quito abounded in bell-casters, and rivalled ‘any similarly sized European capital in the number of harmonious bells rung at all hours’. Samuel Fritz (1656–1725), a Bohemian from Trautenau (now Trutnov), first popularized violin playing at Quito. After independence (1822) the same taste for glitter (especially that of opera) that marked the rest of Latin America touched Quito. After seven years of construction the Teatro Sucre opened with a concert of operatic selections on 25 November 1886; this was followed by a zarzuela season given by the Ludgardo Gómez touring company and the Compañia Jarques. Although from this time until 1904 touring troupes visiting Quito en route to other South American capitals never presented entire operas, but only excerpts accompanied by a piano and four or five instruments, the Quito public heard such great stars as Tamberlik and Carlotta Patti. A programme by these and supporting performers, accompanied by a pianist and a chamber group, was announced in El Nacional on 25 May 1888 (xii/418, p.1786); it included excerpts from Die Zauberflöte, Rigoletto and Les contes d’Hoffmann. Such programmes generally had 20 numbers, half of them operatic selections, half lighter music such as solo songs in Spanish, comedy skits on the sainete pattern, and a few short pieces exhibiting the prowess of local virtuosos. After various earlier private conservatories had closed, President Gabriel García Moreno (1821–75) decreed the foundation of the Conservatorio Nacional de Música on 28 February 1870, with the Corsican-born Antonio Neumane (1818–71), composer of the Ecuadorian national anthem, as its first director. It has subsequently been directed by musicians of German, Italian and local origin. Pedro Pablo Traversari Salazar (1874–1956), who administered the conservatory for two periods between 1916 and 1941, left a superb collection of European and Andean instruments sold to the Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana on 1 May 1951; this now forms the nucleus of the Quito Museo de Instrumentos Musicales. Among the conservatory's other directors, Humberto Salgado (1903–77) was a prolific composer. The leading theory texts published in the early years of the Quito Conservatory by its teachers were Juan Agustin Guerrero’s Nociones de Instrumentación and Teoría musical (both 1873), and Nicolás Abelardo Guerra’s Gramática Musical (1911, 3/1929). The leading Ecuadorian 20th-century music historian, Luis Segundo Moreno (b Cotacachi, Imbabura, 3 Aug 1882; d Quito, 18 Nov 1973), was associated with the conservatory in various capacities, first as copyist (1909), then as theory professor (1911–13). The Sociedad Filarmónica de Quito, organized on 11 June 1952 with the critic Francisco Alexander (1910–88) as president, sponsored the founding of the Orquesta Sinfónica Nacional on 2 May 1956. During the first eight years this orchestra gave 120 concerts under its titular conductors Ernesto Xancó (May 1956 – August 1958), Georges Gallandres (October 1958 – August 1959), Viktor Bürger (July 1960 – March 1963) and Paul Capolongo (September 1963 – April 1964), all of European extraction. Of the 70 composers represented at these concerts, six were native Ecuadorians – Néstor Cueva, Corsino Durán, Enrique Espín Yépez, Mercedes Silva Echanique, Carlos Bonilla and Claudio Aizaga. In the same eight years Radio Quito encouraged local talent with premières of the early compositions of Mesias Maiguashca (b 1938) and Gerardo Guevara Viteri (b 1930). After an absence in Paris (1969–71) financed by a UNESCO grant Guevara Viteri became conductor of the National SO in July 1972. While Maiguashca and Guevara Viteri have drawn on European styles, one local composer, the Franciscan organist and ethnomusicologist Carlos Alberto Coba (b 1937), writes colourful works inspired by South Amerindian music. In the 20th century the chief concerts in Quito have usually been given at the Teatro Sucre (new building completed 1903, cap. 1500), including those of the pioneer Quinteto Beethoven (reviewed in El Comercio 2 and 6 August 1912) and the Cuarteto Teran (10 August 1925), the début of the Quito-born pianist Leslie Wright (16 July 1953), the concert of the Colombia SO (4 December 1953), celebrating the fourth centenary of the founding of Quito. Improved air travel has subsequently brought such international celebrities as Segovia, Rubinstein and Bernstein to the city. BIBLIOGRAPHY J.A. Guerrero: La música ecuatoriana desde su origen hasta 1875 (Quito, 1876/R) [see also review, Inter-American Music Review, xiii/1 (1992), 109–11] J. Kolberg: Nach Ecuador (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1876, 2/1881) R. Stevenson: ‘Music in Quito: Four Centuries’, Hispanic American Historical Review, xliii (1963), 247–66 F. Alexander: Música y músicos: ensayos en miniatura (Quito, 1970) R. Stevenson: Renaissance and Baroque Musical Sources in the Americas (Washington DC, 1970) C.E. Ramírez Gómez: ‘Así comenzó la banda municipal de Quito’, Revista estrella, vii/27 (1975) R. Rephann: A Catalogue of the Pedro Travesari Collection of Musical Instruments (Washington DC, 1978) R. Stevenson: ‘Quito Cathedral: Four Centuries’, Inter-American Music Review, iii/1 (1980–81), 19–38 [incl. additional bibliography] E. Bermúdez: ‘La vihuela de la iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Quito’, Revista musical chilena, no.179 (1993), 69–77 E. Cordero Torres: ‘Mujeres compositoras: un vacío incomprensible’, Revista memoria, iii/3 (1993), 110–13 M. Godoy Aguirre: ‘Las bandas de música en el Ecuador’, ibid., 9–23 P. Guerrero Gutiérrez and R. Garzón, eds.: Yaravíes quiteños: música ecuatoriana del siglo XIX (Quito, 1993) ROBERT STEVENSON Quitschreiber, Georg (b Kranichfeld, nr Weimar, 30 Dec 1569; bur. Magdala, nr Jena, the day before Whitsunday 1638). German composer and theorist. He studied with Nicolaus Rosthius, though it is not known when and where. In 1588 he was a student of theology at Jena University. In 1594 Count Albrecht von Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt appointed him court and civic Kantor at Rudolstadt. He married Sybille Wendel on 20 June 1596. He became Kantor and fourth schoolmaster in Jena in 1598 and pastor of the villages of Hainichen and Stiebritz, not far away, in 1614; from 1629 until his death he was pastor of Magdala, Ottstedt and Maina. A bitter dispute with his relative Konrad Berger, schoolmaster of Ottstedt, and the agitation it caused Quitschreiber are said to have led to his death. Friedrich Taubmann, professor of poetry at Wittenberg, called Quitschreiber ‘the Thuringian nightingale’. His compositions, printed almost exclusively in Jena, are in what is probably an intentionally simple style similar to that of Lucas Osiander and Cyriacus Schneegass. His music is easy to perform: there is little movement in the middle voices and the bass proceeds mostly in leaps of 4ths and 5ths. Only the multi-voice motets, some of which bear indications of combined vocal and instrumental performance, display a more varied style of part-writing. The 35 a cappella settings in his Kirchengesäng of 1608, which were principally intended ‘to be practised and sung by our dear young people’, are four-part compositions for the time from Advent to the beginning of Lent. Similar collections were published around the same time by Melchior Vulpius. Quitschreiber’s compositional output is yet to be fully assessed. He composed occasional works for funerals, weddings, and birthday and school festivities, and even after taking orders he regularly continued to compose festive music for such university occasions at Jena as jubilees, the installation of rectors and doctoral degree ceremonies held in the Jena civic church. He was a poet as well, writing the words for much of his own music (many of which incorporate acrostics), and a number of printed funeral sermons contain his Latin and German poems. Quitschreiber is also the author of theoretical writings, some of which went into several editions. The Musikbüchlein für die Jugend, which is an important introduction to vocal polyphony, was quoted extensively by Michael Praetorius in his Syntagma Musicum. Much of the book’s content is of a practical nature. The author recommended a moderate tempo and appropriate alternation between instruments and the voice. He was against restriction to the ten-line system, and extended the range to three octaves and a 6th – presumably a concession to the instrumental music then developing. He explored the problem of the seventh degree in solmization extensively, but in an uncomplicated manner. In addition, there are instructions for finding the starting pitch in the performance of vocal music and examples of transpositions of up to a 5th ‘as desired or in case of need’. His De canendi elegantia is also practical in aim: its 18 rules are largely based on the publications of Andreas Ornitoparchus (1517). The brief apologia, De Parodia, treats the concept of parody in its widest sense. Here he showed how certain compositions by Josquin, Lassus, Lupi, Marenzio, Hieronymous Praetorius, Rodio, Striggi, Vecchi and Victoria underwent crucial modification by the reduction or expansion of the number of voices, the adoption of themes or the use of new texts. Quitschreiber’s references to classical writings on education from Aristides Quintilianus to Joseph Scaliger place him in the late humanist intellectual tradition. His remarkable treatise Voces quaedam animalium diversorum (1612) studied the concepts and words employed for the vocal utterances of animals by Greek and Latin authors and the Bible. WORKS Sacred vocal
Theoretical
BIBLIOGRAPHY GöhlerV PraetoriusSM WaltherML ZahnM F. Taubmann: Macci Plauti Comoediae (Wittenberg, 1612) E. Walther: ‘Sittengeschichtliche Bilder aus dem weimarischen Dorfe Ottstedt bei Magdala: Der Prozess Quischreiber gegen Berger (1631/1641)’, Thüringischer Bauernspiegel, Jg.6 (1929), 111–15 E. Wennig: Chronik des musikalischen Lebens der Stadt Jena, i: Von den Anfängen bis zum Jahre 1750 (Jena, 1937) T. Dart: ‘How They Sang in Jena in 1598’, MT, cviii (1967), 316–17 E. Möller: ‘Der Jenaer Kantor Georg Quitschreiber (1569–1638)’, Quellenkunde in Thüringen (Bad Köstritz, 1988), 85–94 U. Bartels: Vokale und instrumentale Aspekte im musiktheoretischen Schrifttum der 1. Hälfte des 17. Jahrhunderts: Studien zur musikalischen Aufführungspraxis in Deutschland zur Zeit des Frühbarock (Regensburg, 1989) K.W. Niemöller: ‘Parodia-Imitatio: Zu Georg Quitschreibers Schrift von 1611’, Studien zur Musikgeschichte: Eine Festschrift für Ludwig Finscher, ed. A. Laubethal and K. Kusan-Windweh (Kassel, 1995), 174–80 EBERHARD MÖLLER Quittard, Henri (b Clermont-Ferrand, 13 May 1864; d Paris, 21 July 1919). French music historian. After taking the licence ès lettres when he was 24, he went to Paris and, following the advice of Chabrier, studied music with Franck. He soon devoted himself to the history of music, and his first studies appeared in 1898. His special domain was the French musicians of the 16th and 17th centuries. The lutenists of France were of great interest to him; with Michel Brenet he was one of the first to demonstrate their importance. Quittard was lecturer at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes Sociales, archivist at the Opéra from 1912 until his death and music critic to Le Matin and from 1909 to Le Figaro. He left unfinished an edition of harpsichord pieces by Louis Couperin. His private collection of lute music, transcriptions, etc., was bequeathed to the Conservatoire library. WRITINGS ed.: Mémoires de musicologie sacrée: Paris 1900 [incl. ‘Giacomo Carissimi et le dix-septième siècle italien’, 77–94] Les années de jeunesse de J.-P. Rameau (Paris, 1902) Un musicien en France au XVIIe siècle: Henry Du Mont (Paris, 1906/R) [incl. musical suppl.] ‘Un recueil de psaumes français du XVIIe siècle [Signac’s Cinquante psaumes de David, 1630]’, SIMG, xi (1909–10), 483–508 ‘La théorbe comme instrument d’accompagnement’, BSIM, vi (1910), 221–31; pubd separately (Paris, 1980) Les Couperin (Paris, 1913) ‘Musique instrumentale jusqu’à Lully’, EMDC, I/iii (1913), 1176–260 ‘Notes sur Guillaume de Machaut et son oeuvre’, RdM, i (1918), 123–32 BIBLIOGRAPHY L. de La Laurencie: Obituary, RdM, i (1917–19), 242–5 [incl. list of writings] MARIE LOUISE PEREYRA/R Quodlibet (Lat.: ‘what you please’). A composition in which well-known melodies and texts appear in successive or simultaneous combinations. Generally the quodlibet serves no higher purpose than that of humour or technical virtuosity, and may thus be distinguished from more serious works in which pre-existing material has a constructive or symbolic function. Wolfgang Schmeltzl first used the term with specific reference to music (Guter seltzamer und künstreicher teutscher Gesang, sonderlich etliche künstliche Quodlibet, Nuremberg, 1544), taking it from the name of an improvised oral examination in German universities, the disputatio de quolibet. Originally the disputation was a serious scholastic exercise at the Sorbonne in Paris during the Middle Ages, but in Germany it became a humorous parody featuring ridiculous lists of items loosely combined under an absurd theme (e.g. objects forgotten by women fleeing from a harem). This general concept was widely accepted in 16th-century German literature, and comical ‘catalogue’ poems of all kinds (such as Priamel) flourished, prompting such definitions of the quodlibet as ‘durcheinandermischmäsch’ (S. Roth, 1571). Fischart (Geschichtsklitterung, 1575) noted the common element of haphazard combination found in the disputation and the musical quodlibet, probably with reference to Schmeltzl, who followed both academic and literary fashion in stressing nonsensical catalogues in his musical quodlibets. In France ‘quolibet’ referred to witty riddles, and ‘avoir de quolibet’ still means the ability to verbalize quickly a clever, spirited repartee. In this period catalogue poetry was less popular in France than Germany, but lists of ‘fools’ prefaced theatrical sotties, and the lists of dishes and songs in Rabelais’ Pantagruel were notorious. The citation of chansons and hymn lines (Chesnaye, Molinet, Rabelais) prompted appropriate musical references when such poetry was set to music, and both lighthearted inanity and serious or religious symbolism were explored as Renaissance composers sought musical parallels to poetic centonization. Theorists often included quodlibets to illustrate matters such as mensuration, modes and cantus firmus treatment (Tinctoris, Proportionale musices, c1473–4; Glarean, Dodecachordon, 1547; Zarlino, Le istitutioni harmoniche, 1558; Zacconi, Prattica di musica, 1622); but it was Praetorius in book 3 of Syntagma musicum (1618) who provided the first systematic definition of the musical quodlibet as a mixture of diverse elements quoted from sacred and secular compositions. He presented three categories which he differentiated on the basis of text treatment. A combination of his sometimes abstruse explanation with analysis of his music examples gives the following types: every voice is a completely different cantus prius factus; every voice is a different patchwork of quoted fragments; one voice is a patchwork of quotations whose text is shared by the other voices. Parallel types of quodlibet in the Renaissance were the Fricassée (France), Misticanza or messanza (Italy), Ensalada (Spain) and Medley (England). Incatenatura is a term used by modern scholars to refer to the Italian quodlibet; cento, which survives from classical antiquity, refers specifically to poetry made up entirely of lines quoted from other works, or more generally to any artistic technique that relies on patchwork construction, citations, borrowings, formulae etc. (see Centonization). There are also some isolated terms used from the 17th century to the present that are more or less closely related to the quodlibet, such as farrago, rôtibouilli, salatade, fantasia, capriccio, pasticcio, potpourri and miscellany; but this article will discuss only works that fall into one of the three types of quodlibet proper, based on 16th-century German practice: catalogue, successive and simultaneous. The catalogue quodlibet consists of a freely composed setting of catalogue poetry. Such pieces were rare in the medieval motet, but there is one well-known example, Moriuntur, oriuntur (I-Fl Plut.29.1), in which a list of nonsense syllables serves as a drinking-song. Polytextual motets of the 13th century nevertheless rely heavily on the allegorical or parodistic effects obtained by juxtaposing musical and literary materials drawn from a wide range of genres and registers – sacred and secular alike. A good many of these pieces not only allude to pre-existing tenor melodies from plainchant and chansons, but combine them in ways related to the procedures heard in late examples of the quodlibet. Clearly such works were intended for listeners and readers with a wide range of musical repertories and highly sophisticated skills of interpretation that allowed them to understand the meanings latent in the bricolage of seemingly unrelated materials. The onomatopoeic word-play in the 14th-century Italian caccia also prefigured certain aspects of quodlibet hilarity. The closest early parallel, however, is the monophonic setting of Mon seul plaisir from the late 15th century (F-Pn fr.12744), which is a catalogue of 19 famous chanson refrains (e.g. Comme femme, J'ay pris amours, Ma bouche rit). The melody, which does not quote musical material, appeared in a polyphonic arrangement by Ninot le Petit. Of the 25 quodlibets in Schmeltzl's publication (see above), 15 belong to this category (e.g. Ein Quodlibet von Eyren by Matthias Greiter and Ein Quodlibet von Nasen by J. Puxstaller; the latter text was also set by Lassus). In 1540 Georg Forster printed two catalogue quodlibets on the theme of Martin’s goose, and series of proverbs were also popular, as in Paul Rivander's Nun höret an (1615). Both Jacob Reiner's Venite exultemus (1581) and Nikolaus Zangius's Er setzt das Gläslein an den Mund (1620) set lists of comical drinking-proverbs, and another catalogue of noses was included in J.M. Gletle's Musica genialis (1675–84). The simplicity of the musical settings suggests that such pieces were written versions of improvised musical entertainment. In the 17th century many German collections of entertainment music included verbal catalogue quodlibets (e.g. those of J.M. Caesar, Gletle and Daniel Speer), and the tradition culminated in the ‘quodlibeticae’ of the Augsburger Tafelkonfekt (1733–46). In the successive quodlibet one voice consists of a patchwork or cento of short musical and textual quotations while the others form a homophonic accompaniment, which is either without a text or else shares that of the patchwork voice. The most striking medieval parallel to this kind of Renaissance quodlibet is provided by the quotation of chanson lines in the refrain motet and motet enté. At least one out of every 25 motets contains a patchwork of refrains in one voice (e.g. Cele m'a mort/Alleluia and La bele m'ocit/In seculum). From the 13th century onwards Street cries were also frequently included among the borrowed material. In the earliest Renaissance quodlibet, Wer ich eyn Falck, which appears in the Breslauer Codex (late 15th century), the tenor consists of a cento of fragments from German songs, while the remaining three voices have no text. Another anonymous quodlibet with song quotations in the tenor was published in Forster's second volume of German lieder (1540). Schmeltzl's collection of 25 quodlibets contains six homophonic centos in which a patchwork in the tenor is surrounded by free voices; but the highpoint of the German type was reached in the works of Melchior Franck. Nine of his ten quodlibets (published in the Musikalischer Grillenvertreiber, 1622) are homophonic centos and are more modern in style than earlier examples: the patchwork voice is in the upper part and the quotations are mainly from folksongs. Only two other 17th-century homophonic centos are known, Johann Groh's Bettler Mantel (1612) and Johannes Brassicanus's Was wölln wir aber heben an? In his Musica genialis Gletle included a quodlibet citing popular texts, which may also contain musical quotations. Cento technique continued to provide humorous social entertainment, however, as in the quodlibets of Johann Christenius, Georg Engelmann (i) and Johann Theile, and in the street-cry quodlibets of Daniel Friderici, Jakob Banwart, Kindermann and G.J. Werner. Out of the 21 ‘quodlibeticae’ in the Augsburger Tafelkonfekt two are musical centos: Quodlibeticum curiosum and Salvete hospices. Among the best-known examples from the 18th century are the Hochzeitsquodlibet, in which J.S. Bach collaborated, and Mozart's Gallimathias musicum. The simultaneous quodlibet consists basically of the polyphonic cento, in which two or more patchwork voices are combined polyphonically, and the cantus firmus quodlibet, in which each voice is a different cantus prius factus. A third subtype, in which a cantus firmus voice is combined with one or more patchwork voices (‘cantus firmus cento’), is less common; there are only four cantus firmus centos in German secular music, three of which are in the Glogauer Liederbuch (c1480; the fourth is a bicinium by Paul Rebhuhn published in 15457). These three are among the first examples of the quodlibet proper in Germany; they combine a voice from O rosa bella by Dunstaple or Bedyngham with a patchwork of German songs (see HAM, nos.80 and 82). The polyphonic cento involves a more complex technique than the homophonic, since several different patchworks of successive quotations must be combined polyphonically – the more centos the more complicated the combination. Schmeltzl included only three such works and they all bear the inscription ‘Fürt ein jede stymm jr eygen text’; one of these pieces, Ein Guckuck, was reworked by Johannes Eccard (1578). This type of quodlibet corresponds to Praetorius's second category, which he illustrated by referring to a work of Zangius (probably Ich will zu land ausreiten, published in Paul Kauffmann's Musikalischer Zeitvertreiber, 1609). Zangius also wrote two other polyphonic centos: Bistu der Hänsel Schüze (1620) and Ich ging einmal spazieren (1613). Franck's Kessel, multer bilden, originally published as Farrago (1602), brings together many popular songs in masterful six-voice counterpoint. Juxtaposing several pre-existing melodies, as in the cantus firmus quodlibet, represented in Renaissance thought the ultimate in contrapuntal mastery. Clearly this was the didactic intent that Tinctoris had in mind in his Proportionale, which included a work that used O rosa bella as a cantus, L'homme armé as a tenor and Et Robinet as a bassus. The kind of technical virtuosity required is evident in Greiter's Elselein liebstes Elselein, which appeared in Schmeltzl's collection as an example of a quodlibet composed entirely of quoted melodies; but it may also be seen in contemporary works that quote from two to four simultaneous cantus firmi. Among these are several particularly fine works of Senfl (e.g. Ach Elselein/Es taget), and works by such composers as Jobst vom Brandt, Matthias Eckel, Caspar Othmayr and Matthaeus Le Maistre. Humour is obvious in Othmayr’s drinking-songs and technical virtuosity for its own sake in Greiter’s, but Senfl’s works exude a tender melancholy and represent perhaps a more subtle kind of symbolism than is normally associated with the quodlibet. In such pieces, as in the much larger and older repertory of sacred works using borrowed material for symbolic or purely constructive purposes, the proper boundaries of the quodlibet are difficult to maintain with precision or consistency. In any case, Praetorius limited the category of the cantus firmus quodlibet to works in which every voice is a separate cantus prius factus, citing as an example a motet of Göldel that combines five different chorales; Christenius's Kirchenquodlibet continued this tradition. The most famous cantus firmus quodlibet of all is the final variation of Bach's Goldberg Variations, in which two popular German songs (Kraut und Rüben and Ich bin so lang nicht bei dir g'west) are joined with the harmonic framework of the theme. In a rather different guise the quodlibet took on a new lease of life in the German (and especially the Viennese) theatre of the first half of the 19th century. The term was used in four distinct senses: for the amalgam of (often non-theatrical) items assembled in book form; for a theatrical entertainment in which a popular artist or artists appeared in a series of excerpts from favourite roles; for a pasticcio in which pre-existing musical numbers were grafted on to a libretto for which they were not originally intended (Rochus Pumpernickel, 1809, text by M. Stegmayer, music arranged by Ignaz von Seyfried and Jakob Haibel, is the most famous example); and lastly, for the potpourri or musical switch. This kind of quodlibet, very popular in Viennese farces and Singspiele between the early 1800s and the 1850s, and probably derived from the same German tradition that enlivened Bach family gatherings and produced J.V. Rathgeber's and G.J. Werner's mid-18th-century examples, consisted of between half a dozen and 50 or more consecutive quotations, usually with altered text; the frequent incongruity of words and music in an unexpected context proved a potent source of parody and entertainment. Examples of quodlibet-like compositions are not hard to find in 20th-century music. There are a number of works by Ives, for example, in which well-known melodies are combined simultaneously as well as successively (e.g. the last movement of his Symphony no.2); but here, as in 15th- and 16th-century cantus firmus compositions, the dividing line between the serious or symbolic use of borrowed materials and the purely humorous is difficult to draw. There can be little doubt, however, that the essential spirit and form of the genre survives in works such as the Quodlibet of Peter Schickele. BIBLIOGRAPHY MARIA RIKA MANIATES (with PETER BRANSCOMBE)/RICHARD FREEDMAN Quodlibet BIBLIOGRAPHY MGG1(K. Gudewill) PraetoriusSM, iii RiemannL12 M. Praetorius: Syntagma musicum, iii (Wolfenbüttel, 1618, 2/1619/R) R. Eitner: ‘ Das deutsche Lied des XV. und XVI. Jahrhunderts’, MMg, viii (1876), suppl., 1–169; xii (1880), suppl., 1–309 A. Raphael: ‘ Über einige Quodlibete mit dem Cantus firmus “O rosa bella” und über dieses Lied selbst’, MMg, xxxi (1899), 161–79 E. Bienenfeld: ‘Wolfgang Schmeltzl, sein Liederbuch (1544) und das Quodlibet des XVI. Jahrhunderts’, SIMG, vi (1904–5), 80–135 F. Feldmann: ‘ Zwei weltliche Stücke des Breslauer Codex Mf.2016’, ZMw, xiii (1930–31), 252–66 H.J. Moser: Corydon, das ist Geschichte des mehrstimmigen Generalbassliedes und des Quodlibets im deutschen Barock (Brunswick, 1933/R) M.F. Bukofzer: ‘An Unknown Chansonnier of the 15th Century’, MQ, xxviii ( 1942), 14–49 D. Plamenac: ‘ A Reconstruction of the French Chansonnier in the Biblioteca Colombina, Seville’, MQ, xxxvii (1951), 501–42; xxxviii (1952), 85–117, 245–77 D. Plamenac: ‘ Deux pièces de la Renaissance française tirées de fonds florentins’, RBM, vi (1952), 12–23 F. Lesure and others, eds.: Anthologie de la chanson parisienne au XVIe siècle (Monaco, 1953/R) F. Lesure: ‘ Eléments populaires dans la chanson française au début du XVIe siècle’, Musique et poésie au XVIe siècle: Paris 1953, 169–84 H.M. Shire and K. Elliott: ‘La fricassée en Ecosse et ses rapports avec les fêtes de la Renaissance’, Les fêtes de la Renaissance[I]: Royaumont 1955, 335–45 G. Kraft: ‘Zur Entstehungsgeschichte des “Hochzeitsquodlibet” (bwv524)’, BJb 1956, 140–54 J. LaRue: ‘A “Hail and Farewell” Quodlibet Symphony’, ML, xxxvii (1956), 250–59 H.M. Brown: ‘ The chanson rustique: Popular Elements in the 15th- and 16th-Century Chanson’, JAMS, xii (1959), 16–26 K. Petermann: Das Quodlibet: eine Volksliedquelle? (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1960) H. Albrecht: ‘ Ein quodlibetartiges Magnificat aus der Zwickauer Ratsschulbibliothek’, Festschrift Heinrich Besseler, ed. E. Klemm (Leipzig, 1961), 215–20 C. Gallico, ed.: Un canzoniere musicale italiano del Cinquecento [I-Bc Q21] (Florence, 1961) K. Gudewill: ‘ Ursprünge und nationale Aspekte des Quodlibets’, IMSCR VIII: New York 1961, i, 30–43 [see also discussion, ibid., ii, 53–7] P. Gülke: ‘Das Volkslied in der burgundischen Polyphonie des 15. Jahrhunderts’, Festschrift Heinrich Besseler, ed. E. Klemm (Leipzig, 1961), 179–202 H.M. Brown: Music in the French Secular Theater, 1400–1550 (Cambridge, MA, 1963) H.M. Brown, ed.: Theatrical Chansons of the Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries (Cambridge, MA, 1963) M. Picker: ‘ Newly Discovered Sources for In minen Sin’, JAMS, xvii (1964), 133–43 M.R. Maniates: Combinative Techniques in Franco-Flemish Polyphony: Mannerism in Music from 1450 to 1530 (diss., Columbia U., 1965) M. Picker: ‘ The Cantus Firmus in Binchois's Files a marier’, JAMS, xviii (1965), 235–6 M. Picker: The Chanson Albums of Marguerite of Austria (Berkeley, 1965) D. Plamenac: ‘ The Two-Part Quodlibets in the Seville Chansonnier’, The Commonwealth of Music, in Honor of Curt Sachs, ed. G. Reese and R. Brandel (New York, 1965), 163–81 W. Rogge: Das Quodlibet in Deutschland bis Melchior Franck (Wolfenbüttel, 1965) H. Hewitt: ‘ A chanson rustique of the Early Renaissance: Bon temps’, Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, ed. J. LaRue and others (New York, 1966/R), 376–91 M.R. Maniates: ‘Mannerist Composition in Franco-Flemish Polyphony’, MQ, lii (1966), 17–36 M.R. Maniates: ‘Quodlibet revisum’, AcM, xxxviii (1966), 169–78 W. Elders: Studien zur Symbolik in der Musik der alten Niederländer (Bilthoven, 1968) H. Deppert and R. Zillhardt: ‘Ein weiteres Quodlibet im Glogauer Liederbuch’, Mf, xxii (1969), 316–18 W. Elders: ‘ Das Symbol in der Musik von Josquin des Prez’, AcM, xli ( 1969), 164–85 M.R. Maniates: ‘Combinative Chansons in the Dijon Chansonnier’, JAMS, xxiii (1970), 228–81 M.R. Maniates: ‘Combinative Chansons in the Escorial Chansonnier’, MD, xxix (1975), 61–125 P.J. Branscombe: The Connexions Between Drama and Music in the Viennese Popular Theatre with Special Reference to the Forms of Parody (diss., U. of London, 1976) M. Everist: ‘ The Refrain Cento: Myth or Motet?’, JRMA, cxiv (1989), 164–88 H. Vanhulst: ‘ La fricassée de Jean de Latre (1564)’, RBM, xlvii ( 1993), 81–90 S. Huot: Allegorical Play in the Old French Motet: the Sacred and the Profane in Thirteenth-Century Polyphony (Stanford, CA, 1997) Quoshwa. See Cachua. Quotation. The incorporation of a relatively brief segment of existing music in another work, in a manner akin to quotation in speech or literature, or a segment of existing music so incorporated in a later work. Quotation usually means melodic quotation, although the whole musical texture may be incorporated, and solely rhythmic quotation is possible, if rare. Quotation is distinct from other forms of Borrowing in that the borrowed material is presented exactly or nearly so, unlike an Allusion or Paraphrase, but is not part of the main substance of the work, as it would be if used as a Cantus firmus, Refrain, fugue subject or theme in Variations or other forms, or if presented complete in a Contrafactum, setting (see Setting (ii)), Intabulation, transcription, Medley or Potpourri. Quotation plays a role in other forms of borrowing, such as Quodlibet, Collage and many instances of Modelling. Musical scholarship has not always observed these distinctions, and ‘quotation’ and its German counterpart Zitat have been used to refer to a variety of borrowing practices. A quotation in speech or literature may be attributed or unattributed, familiar or unfamiliar to the listener, set off from the surrounding context by punctuation or tone of voice or so integrated with its context that only the most observant notice that it is a quotation. A similar range is possible in music. Some 20th-century scores identify quotations with footnotes, and quotations of text with music provide almost as explicit an identification, but most quotations appear without attribution. Quotations are often prominent and brief, suggesting that the composer or improviser expects those familiar with the quoted work to recognize it from a short excerpt. It is also possible for listeners to hear a ‘quotation’ where none was intended, based on a coincidental similarity. In most cases, quoting existing music is an act that conveys meaning through the text or associations carried by the quoted music and the implications aroused by the way the quoted material is presented or manipulated. Like a synecdoche in literature, the quotation can stand for the entire work from which it is extracted and thus for its composer, its genre, its historical period, its region of origin or the musical tradition from which it comes. Quotation has also been used to create humour through surprise or incongruous juxtapositions and, in 20th-century music, to comment on the distance between the present and the past. The practice of musical quotation, as distinct from older forms of borrowing such as centonization, contrafactum, use of a model and polyphonic elaboration of chant, may have begun in medieval secular songs in tandem with quotation of text. Both words and melody from Machaut's ballade Phyton, le mervilleus serpent are quoted in Phiton, Phiton by Magister Franciscus, which replies to Machaut, and Ciconia's Sus une fontayne quotes text and music from the beginnings of three ballades by Philippus de Caserta, apparently in a gesture of homage. The practice can also be found in the Renaissance. Josquin's motet Tu solus, qui facis mirabilia quotes text and music from the opening of Ockeghem's chanson D'ung aultre amer, joining the French and Latin texts to read ‘To love another [than Christ] would be deception’. It has also been suggested that melodic resemblances between some Renaissance works represent quotations or allusions meant to recall the words of the quoted work and enrich the meaning of the words being sung (Reynolds, 1992). This is surely true in the first recitative in Bach's ‘Peasant’ Cantata (1742) when the strings quote the song Mit dir und mir ins Federbett (‘With you and me in the feather-bed’) to suggest that Mieke's lover wants more than the kiss he requests. In dramatic or programmatic works, quotations can depict a performance of the music being quoted or suggest activities or groups of people through music associated with them. Early examples include Biber's representation in Battalia (1673) of soldiers encamped before a battle through the folksongs they sing, and the supper scene in Mozart's Don Giovanni (1787), in which an onstage band plays tunes from operas by Soler and Salieri and from his own Le Nozze di Figaro. The quotations of patriotic songs in battle-pieces from James Hewitt's The Battle of Trenton (1797) to Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture (1880) represent the opposing armies through the music of their bands. Quotation of Ein' feste Burg in Meyerbeer's Les Huguenots (1836) represents a performance of the chorale, but its appearance in Mendelssohn's Reformation Symphony (1832) more abstractly represents the Reformation in general. Quotation of vocal music in instrumental works can be interpreted as a reference to the original text, which can suggest meanings and invite programmatic interpretations, as in Brahms's and Mahler's quotations from their own songs or the quotations from Zemlinsky's Lyrische Symphonie in Berg's Lyric Suite (1925–6). An exact quotation may also signal another, less obvious relationship between two works; in Ives's song West London (1921), the appearance in the piano postlude of the opening phrase of the hymn There is a Fountain Filled with Blood makes overt the source from which almost the entire vocal line has been paraphrased (Burkholder, 1985). Quotations can have humorous or satirical intent, like the reference to Wagner's Tristan und Isolde in Debussy's ‘Golliwogg's Cakewalk’ from Children's Corner (1906–8) and the quotation of Chopin's funeral march in Satie's Embryons desséchés (1913). Tin Pan Alley songwriters in the late 19th and early 20th centuries often quoted well-known tunes near the end of the chorus, as in George M. Cohan's The Story of the Wedding March (1901, with Mendelssohn's wedding march), or used quotation to suggest a scene or activity, as in James Thornton's Streets of Cairo (1895), which evokes exotic dancing by borrowing the tune that accompanied the ‘hoochy-koochy’ dance performed at the 1893 Chicago World's Fair. Jazz improvisers often quote popular tunes, classical music or other jazz artists in their solos, with aims that vary from homage to private jokes. Quotations can convey meanings remarkably quickly through the associations carried by the quoted material; this is often exploited in music for films and television. Composers since World War II have used quotation to suggest the gulf between present and past by juxtaposing current and past musical idioms; in ‘Dream Images (Love-Death Music)’ from Crumb's Makrokosmos I for amplified piano (1972), the middle section of Chopin's Fantaisie-Impromptu appears ‘as if emerging from silence’ amidst Crumb's own sweetly dissonant modern sounds, ‘like the gentle caress of a faintly remembered music’. The many and varied uses of borrowed material in 20th-century music have often all been described as ‘quotation’, which obscures important distinctions (see Borrowing, §§12–14). BIBLIOGRAPHY MGG2 (G. Gruber: ‘Zitat’) F. Peterson: ‘Quotation in Music’, MMR, xxx (1900), 217–19, 241–3, 265–7 R. Sternfeld-Friedenau: ‘Musikalische Citate und Selbstcitate’, Die Musik, ii (1902–3), 429–42 G. Münzer and O. Grohe: ‘Musikalische Zitate und Selbstzitate’, Die Musik, iii (1903–4), 430–33 L. Harrison: ‘On Quotation’, MM, xxiii (1946), 166–9 P. Keppler, Jr.: ‘Some Comments on Musical Quotation’, MQ, xlii (1956), 473–85 H. Kirchmeyer: ‘Vom Sinn und Unsinn musikliterarischer Schlagwortzitate: eine Studie zum Thema “Demagogie der Informationen”’, NZM, Jg.122 (1961), 490–96 G. von Noé: ‘Das musikalische Zitat’, NZM, Jg.124 (1963), 134–7 B. Meier: ‘Melodiezitate in der Musik des 16. Jahrhunderts’, TVNM, xx/1–2 (1964–5), 1–19 Z. Lissa: ‘Ästhetische Funktionen des musikalischen Zitats’, Mf, xix (1966), 364–78 H. Goldschmidt: ‘Zitat oder Parodie?’, BMw, xii (1970), 171–98 E. Budde: ‘Zitat, Collage, Montage’, Die Musik der sechziger Jahre, ed. R. Stephan (Mainz, 1972), 26–38 U. Günther: ‘Zitate in französischen Liedsätzen der Ars Nova und Ars Subtilior’, MD, xxvi (1972), 53–68 C. Kühn: Das Zitat in der Musik der Gegenwart: mit Ausblicken auf bildende Kunst und Literatur (Hamburg, 1972) T. Kneif: ‘Zur Semantik des musikalischen Zitats’, NZM, Jg.134 (1973), 3–9 Z. Lissa: ‘Historical Awareness of Music and its Role in Present-Day Musical Culture’, IRASM, iv (1973), 17–32 L. Krïlova: ‘Funktsii tsitatï v muzïkal'nom tekste [The functions of quotation in music]’, SovM (1975), no.8, pp.92–7 G. Gruber: ‘Das musikalische Zitat als historisches und systematisches Problem’, Musicologica austriaca, i (1977), 121–35 W. Siegmund-Schultze: ‘Das Zitat im zeitgenössischen Musikschaffen: eine produktiv-schöpferische Traditionslinie?’, Musik und Gesellschaft, xxvii (1977), 73–8 C. Ballantine: ‘Charles Ives and the Meaning of Quotation in Music’, MQ, lxv (1979), 167–84 M. Hicks: The New Quotation: its Origins and Functions (diss., U. of Illinois, 1984) J.P. Burkholder: ‘“Quotation” and Emulation: Charles Ives's Uses of His Models’, MQ, lxxi (1985), 1–26 A.M. Gillmor: ‘Musico-poetic Form in Satie's “Humoristic” Piano Suites (1913–14)’, Canadian University Music Review, viii (1987), 1–44 A. Gimbel: ‘Elgar's Prize Song: Quotation and Allusion in the Second Symphony’, 19CM, xii (1988–9), 231–40 H. Danuser: ‘Musikalische Zitat- und Collageverfahren im Lichte der (Post)Moderne-Diskussion’, Bayerische Akademie der Schönen Kunste: Jahrbuch, iv (1990), 395–409 K. Gabbard: ‘The Quoter and his Culture’, Jazz in Mind: Essays on the History and Meanings of Jazz, ed. R.T. Bruckner and S. Weiland (Detroit, 1991), 92–111 B. Sonntag: ‘Die Marseillaise als Zitat in der Musik: ein Beitrag zum Thema “Musik und Politik”’, ‘Nach Frankreich zogen zwei Grenadier’: Zeitgeschehen im Spiegel von Musik, ed. B. Sonntag (Münster, 1991), 22–37 C.A. Reynolds: ‘The Counterpoint of Allusion in Fifteenth-Century Masses’, JAMS, xlv (1992), 228–60 D. Parmer: ‘Brahms, Song Quotation, and Secret Programs’, 19CM, xix (1995–6), 161–90 P. Thissen: Zitattechniken in der Symphonik des 19. Jahrhunderts (Cologne, 1998) For further bibliography see Borrowing. J. PETER BURKHOLDER Qu’ran reading. A recitation (qirā’a) or chanting (titāwa) of the Qu’ran in Arabic, moving between a kind of stylized speech and singing. It is read by the clergy or Qu’ran readers as part of the liturgy and on other occasions, in all Islamic countries. See Islamic religious music, §I, 3; see also India,§1, 3(iii); V, 2; Iran, §III, 2; Malaysia, §II, 2. |
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