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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Suggestions for teaching:Стр 1 из 9Следующая ⇒
SKILL LEARNING :
Stage 1: Selecting samples Think of one or more examples of language practiceof any kind which you have experienced either as teacher or as learner,and which you consider were effective in helping the learners to remember, ‘automatize’,or increase their ease of use. Write down brief descriptions of them. Stage 2: Analysis Consider: what were the factors, or characteristics,that in your opinion made these activitieseffective? Note down, either on your own or in collaboration with other participants, at least two such characteristics – more if you can. Stage 3: Discussion. Share and compare ideas with those of your trainer and other participants, and discuss.
PRACTICE SCENARIOS Scenario1: Spelling Thisis based on the game‘Hangman’. The teacher write sseven dashes on the board, and invites the students to guess what letters they represent. And they start guessing letters: . . . And so on. Aftera minuteor so of guessing, the class arrives at the word ‘JOURNAL’,which is written up in full on the board. It is thenerased, and the teacher,or a student, thinks of an other word, marks upthe corresponding number of dashes, and the guessing processis repeated. Scenario2: Listening comprehension The class listen to the some recorded text. The teacher then tells the students to open their books and answer the multiple-choice questions on a certain page. When the students have finished,the teacher asks volunteers for their answers,accepting or correcting as appropriate. Scenario3: Grammar exercise The teacher writes on the board a sentence that describes a present situation. Scenario 4: Vocabulary.(After another few guesses, the last of which, after broad hints from the teacher,comes fairly near, the teacher finally gives the correct definition.)
SEQUENCING PRACTICE ACTIVITIES Activity 1 The teacher has written on the board a selection of random numbers, in figures. He or she points to a number; the students call out its name. Activity 2 The teacher has prepareda duplicated list of telephone numbers– the list has at least as many numbersas there are students in the class. On each paper a different number has been marked witha cross; this indicates to the student who gets the paper which is ‘his/her’ number. A student ‘dials’ a number by calling it out, and the student whose number has been ‘dialled’ answers, repeats the number and identifies him-or herself. Other students can then fill in the name opposite the appropriate number on their lists. The identified student then ‘dials’ someone else, and so on. Activity 3 Pairs of students are allotted numbers from one to twenty, so that any one number is shared by two students. They then mix, and sit in a circle. One student in the centre of the circle calls out a number, and the two students who own that number try to change places. As soon as one of them gets up, the student in the centre tries to sit in the vacated place before it can be filled. If successful, he or she takes over the number of the displaced player who then becomes the caller. Activity 4 The learners write down, as figures, a series of random numbers dictated by the teacher. The answers are then checked.
Typical teaching techniques: grammatical explanation, translation, etc. Goals Ø directly, individual learning of the second language as an academic subject; Ø indirectly, ability to use language. Type of student: academically gifted, not young children. Learning assumptions: acquisition of conscious grammatical knowledge and its conversion to use. Classroom assumptions: formal, teacher-controlled. Weaknesses from an SLA research perspective: Ø inadequate use of grammar; Ø inefficient as a means of teaching language use. Suggestions for teaching: Ø use it with academic students who have individual goals of self-development rather than international or local goals; Ø supplement it with other components and processes of language; Ø remember to develop the powerful individual goals for the students, rather than be carried away by the sheer knowledge of grammar.
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Tests may be used as a means to: 1. Give the teacher information about where the students are at the moment, to help decide what to teach next; 2. Give the students information about what they know, so that they also have an awareness of what they need to learn or review; 3. Assess for some purpose external to current teaching (a final grade for the course, selection); 4. Motivate students to learn or review specific material; 5. Get a noisy class to keep quiet and concentrate; 6. Provide a clear indication that the class has reached a ‘station’ in learning, such as the end of a unit, thus contributing to a sense of structure in the course as a whole; 7. Get students to make an effort (in doing the test itself), which is likely to lead to better results and a feeling of satisfaction; 8. Give students tasks which themselves may actually provide useful review or practice, as well as testing; 9. Provide students with a sense of achievement and progress in their learning.
1. The theoretical concepts: validity, reliability, backwash (or washback). 2. The distinction between the following pairs of concepts: – achievement v. proficiency tests – diagnostic v. prognostic tests – discrete-point v. integrative tests – subjective v. objective tests. 3. The form of the following types of test items: – multiple-choice (including the concepts of ‘stem’, ‘options’, ‘distractors’) – cloze.
1. Questions and answers. Simple questions, very often following reading, or as part of an interview; may require short or long answers: What is the (family) relationship between David Copperfield and Mr Murdstone? 2. True/false. A statement is given which is to be marked true or false. This may also be given as a question, in which case the answer is yes or no. Addis Ababa is the capital of Egypt. Is Addis Ababa the capital of Egypt? 3. Multiple choice. The question consists of a stem and a number of options (usually four), from which the testee has to select the right one. A person who writes books is called a) a booker. b) an editor. c) an author. d) a publisher. 4. Gap-filling and completion. The testee has to complete a sentence by filling a gap or adding something. A gap may or may not be signaled by a blank or dash; the word to be inserted may or may not be given or hinted at. They (go) to Australia in 1980. Or They to Australia in 1980. (go) Or A is someone who writes books. Or I’ve seen that film. (never) 5. Matching. The testee is faced with two groups of words, phrases or sentences; each item in the first group has to be linked to a different item in the second. large small unhappy many a lot big little sad 6. Dictation. The tester dictates a passage or set of words; the testee writes them down. 7. Cloze. Words are omitted from a passage at regular intervals (for example, every seventh word). Usually the first two or three lines are given with no gaps. The family are all fine, though Leo had a bad bout of flu last week. He spent most of it lying on the sofa watching when he wasn’t sleeping! His exams in two weeks, so he is about missing school, but has managed to quite a lot in spite feeling ill. 8. Transformation. A sentence is given; the testee has to change it according to some given instruction. Put into the past tense: I go to school by bus. 9. Rewriting. A sentence is given; the testee rewrites it, incorporating a given change of expression, but preserving the basic meaning. He came to the meeting in spite of his illness. Although . . . 10. Translation. The testee is asked to translate expressions, sentences or entire passages to or from the target language. 11. Essay. The testee is given a topic, such as ‘Childhood memories’, and asked to write an essay of a specific length. 12. Monologue. The testee is given a topic or question and asked to speak about it for a minute or two.
Validity. Check that your items really do test what they are meant to! Clarity. Make sure the instructions for each item are clear. They should usually include a sample item and solution. ‘Do-ability’. The test should be quite do-able: not too difficult, with no trick questions. Ask other participants to read through it and answer the questions before finalizing. Marking. Decide exactly how you will assess each section of the test, and how much weighting (percentage of the total grade) you will give it. Make the marking system as simple as you can, and inform the testees what it is: write in the number of points allotted after the instructions for each question. Interest. Try to go for interesting content and tasks, in order to make the test more motivating for the learners. Heterogeneity. The test should be such that lower-level students can feel that they are able to do a substantial part of the test, while the higher-level ones have a chance to show what they know. So include both easy and difficult items, and make one or more of the difficult ones optional.
Test administration Before the test we should inform our students about what is going to be in it, and about the criteria for marking in order to prepare at home; to give information about the time, place, any limitations or rules; to give them any ‘tips’ about how best to cope with the test format; Giving the test to add something when the papers have been distributed but students have not yet started work; during the test not to disturb students, only check whether they are cheating or not. After the test define the time when we can to mark and return the papers; to go through them in class.
Audio-lingual method, founders Charles Fries, Robert Lado (1940-1950). Similar to Direct method. Like the DA, the ALM advised that students be taught a language directly, without using the student’s native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the DA, the ALM does not focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drills the students in the use of grammar. Advantages: Listening and speaking skills are emphasized. Using of effective visual aids in vocabulary teaching. This approach is very functional and easy to work in larger groups. Provides correct pronunciation and structure of words and sentences. Disadvantages: It does not pay sufficient attention to communicative competence. Only language form is considered, not meaning. Pay attention only to listening and speaking while writing and reading are neglected. It is a teacher-centered method. Card 3
A lesson plan is the instructor’s road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done effectively during the class time. Before you plan your lesson, you will first need to identify the learning objectives for the class meeting. Then, you can design appropriate learning activities and develop strategies to obtain feedback on student learning. A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates these three key components: Ø Objectives for student learning Ø Teaching/learning activities Ø Strategies to check student understanding Specifying concrete objectives for student learning will help you determine the kinds of teaching and learning activities you will use in class, while those activities will define how you will check whether the learning objectives have been accomplished.
Stage 1: Preliminary study is seven questions about lesson preparation. Start by answering them yourself, in writing. After writing each response, leave two or three lines empty before going on to the next. Stage 2: Interview Now interview at least two language teachers who are experienced and (as far as you can tell) conscientious and competent professionals. Ask them the same questions, stressing that what you want to know is what they actually do in daily practice, not what they think they ought to do! Stage 3: Results Share your results with other participants. Can you make any generalizations, or does lesson preparation seem to be entirely idiosyncratic? Stage 4: Conclusions Think about or discuss the evidence you have gathered. What conclusions can you draw? Try to assess critically the relevance and usefulness of these conclusions for your own practice. Stage 5: Personal application. Finally, revert to the answers you wrote yourself at the beginning of this process, and add notes be low each one, recording ideas you have learned from this inquiry that may be helpful to you in future lesson planning.
Ø Brainstorm Ø Guidelines for ordering components of a lesson: 1. Put the harder tasks earlier 2. Have quieter activities before lively ones 3. Think about transitions 4. Pull the class together at the beginning and the end 5. End on a positive note. Ø Discussion task: Think about or discuss the questions Ø Follow-up observation task: Observe one or two foreign language lessons, noting down in detail what the components are and how they are organized. The lessons should preferably be given by a teacher you do not know; or a video recording can be used.
Ø Evaluating criteria: Imagine you have just come out of a lesson– whether your own, or one that you have observed – and wish to assess how effective it was. Ø Practice and/or observation: The aim of this task is to try to evaluate the effectiveness of a lesson. The lesson itself could be one of the following possibilities: 1. Most usefully: one you yourself have planned and taught, based on a unit in a course book or syllabus you use or are familiar with. 2. One taught by someone else. 3. Less effective: a video recording of a lesson. 4. As a final resort Try to evaluate how good the lesson was, using the criteria and priorities you have worked on in this unit. If you have observed together with other participants, come together after the lesson to compare notes.
HINTSFOR LESSONMANAGEMENT 1. Prepare more than you need: it is advisable to have an easily presented, light ‘reserve’ activity ready in case of extra time. 2. Similarly, note in advance which component(s) of the lesson you will sacrifice if you find yourself with too little time for everything! 3. Keep a watch or clock easily visible; make sure you are aware throughout how time is going relative to your programme. It is difficult to judge intuitively how time is going when you are busy, and the smooth running of your lesson depends to some extent on proper timing. 4. Do not leave the giving of homework to the last minute! At the end of the lesson learners’ attention sat a low ebb, and you may run out of time before you finish explaining. Explain it earlier on, and then give a quick reminder at the end. 5. If you have papers to distribute and a large class, do not try to give every paper yourself to every student! Give a number of papers to people at different points in the class, ask them to take one and pass the rest on. 6. If you are doing group work: give instructions and make sure these are understood before dividing into groups or even, if practicable, handing out materials; if you do it the other way round, students will be looking at each other and at the materials, and they are less likely to attend to what you have to say.
Typical teaching techniques: dialogues, structure drills, exploitation activities. Goals: getting students to ‘behave’ in appropriate situations. Type of student: non-analytical, non-academic. Learning assumptions: ‘habit-formation’ behaviorist theory. Classroom assumptions: teacher-controlled classroom. Weaknesses from an SLA research perspective: Ø inadequate form of grammar; Ø no position on other aspects of language knowledge or use; Ø Inefficiency of habit formation as a means of teaching use. Suggestions for teaching: Ø use for teaching certain aspects of language only; Ø be aware of the underlying audio-lingual basis of many everyday techniques.
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Groupwork. Students work in small groups on tasks that entail interaction: conveying information, for example, or group decision-making. The teacher walks around listening, intervenes little if at all. Closed-ended teacher questioning. Only one ‘right’ response gets approved. Sometimes cynically called the ‘Guess what the teacher wants you to say’ game. Individual work. The teacher gives a task or set of tasks, and students work on them independently; the teacher walks around monitoring and assisting where necessary. Choral responses. The teacher gives a model which is repeated by all the class in chorus; or gives a cue which is responded to in chorus. Collaboration. Students do the same sort of tasks as in ‘Individual work’, but work together, usually in pairs, to try to achieve the best results they can. The teacher may or may not intervene. (Note that this is different from ‘Group work’, where the task itself necessitates interaction.) Student initiates, teacher answers. For example, in a guessing game: the students think of questions and the teacher responds; but the teacher decides who asks. Full-class interaction. The students debate a topic or do a language task as a class; the teacher may intervene occasionally, to stimulate participation or to monitor. Teacher talk. This may involve some kind of silent student response, such as writing from dictation; but there is no initiative on the part of the student. Self-access. Students choose their own learning tasks, and work autonomously. Open-ended teacher questioning. There are a number of possible ‘right’ answers, so that more students answer each cue.
REASONS FOR QUESTIONING – To provide a model for language or thinking. – To find out something from the learners (facts, ideas, opinions). – To check or test understanding, knowledge or skill. – To get learners to be active in their learning. – To direct attention to the topic being learned. – To inform the class via the answers of the stronger learners rather than through the teacher’s input. – To provide weaker learners with an opportunity to participate. – To stimulate thinking (logical, reflective or imaginative); to probe more deeply into issues. – To get learners to review and practice previously learnt material. – To encourage self-expression. – To communicate to learners that the teacher is genuinely interested in what they think. CRITERIA FOR EFFECTIVE QUESTIONING 1. Clarity: do the learners immediately grasp not only what the question means, but also what kind of an answer is required? 2. Learning value: does the question stimulate thinking and responses that will contribute to further learning of the target material? Or is it irrelevant, unhelpful or merely time-filling? 3. Interest: do students find the question interesting, challenging, stimulating? 4. Availability: can most of the members of the class try to answer it? Or only the more advanced, confident, knowledgeable? (Note that the mere addition of a few seconds’ wait-time before accepting a response can make the question available to a significantly larger number of learners.) 5. Extension: does the question invite and encourage extended and/or varied answers?1 6. Teacher reaction: are the learners sure that their responses will be related to with respect, that they will not be put down or ridiculed if they say something inappropriate?
GROUP-WORK ORGANIZATION 1. Presentation.The instructions that are given at the beginning are crucial: if the students do not understand exactly what they have to do there will be time-wasting, confusion, lack of effective practice, possible loss of control. Select tasks that are simple enough to describe easily; and in monolingual classes you may find it cost-effective to explain some or all in the students’ mother tongue. It is advisable to give the instructions before giving out materials or dividing the class into groups; and a preliminary rehearsal or ‘dry run’ of a sample of the activity with the full class can help to clarify things. Note, however, that if your students have already done similar activities you will be able to shorten the process, giving only brief guidelines; it is mainly the first time of doing something with a class that such care needs to be invested in instructing. Try to foresee what language will be needed, and have a preliminary quick review of appropriate grammar or vocabulary. Finally before giving the sign to start tell the class what the arrangements are for stopping: if there is a time limit, or a set signal for stopping, say what it is; if the groups simply stop when they have finished, then tell them what they will have to do next. It is wise to have a ‘reserve’ task planned to occupy members of groups who finish earlier than expected. 2. Process. Your job during the activity is to go from group to group, monitor, and either contribute or keep out of the way – whichever is likely to be more helpful. If you do decide to intervene, your contribution may take the form of: – providing general approval and support; – helping students who are having difficulty; – keeping the students using the target language (in many cases your mere presence will ensure this!); – tactfully regulating participation in a discussion where you find some students are over-dominant and others silent. 3. Ending. If you have set a time limit, then this will help you draw the activity to a close at a certain point. In principle, try to finish the activity while the students are still enjoying it and interested, or only just beginning to flag. 4. Feedback A feedback session usually takes place in the context of full-class interaction after the end of the group work. Feedback on the task may take many forms: giving the right solution, if there is one; listening to and evaluating suggestions; pooling ideas on the board; displaying materials the groups have produced; and so on.
1. Speed: how fast or slowly each individual may work (everyone being engaged in the same basic task); 2. Level: tasks that are basically aimed at the same teaching point may be presented in easier or more difficult versions, so that the learner can choose the one that suits his or her level; 3. Topic: the learner may be able to select tasks that – while all are based on the same language skill or teaching point – are varied in the subject or topic of the text as well as in level; 4. Language skill or teaching point: each learner may choose to work on a quite different aspect of language: listening, for example, or grammar, or reading literature.
TEACHER OBJECTIVES AND LEARNER ACTIVATION a) Comprehension check. ‘We’ve just finished reading a story. I want to make sure the class has understood it, using the comprehension questions in the book.’ b) Familiarization with text. ‘We’ve just finished reading a story. I’m fairly sure they’ve understood the basic plot, but I want them to get really familiar with the text through reading, they’re going to have to pass an exam on it.’ c) Oral fluency. ‘I have a small [fifteen] class of business people, who need more practice in talking. I want them to do a discussion task where they have to decide which qualities are most important for a manager.’ d) Grammar check. ‘We’ve been working on the distinction between two similar verb tenses. I want to find out how far they’ve grasped it, using an exercise in the book where they have to allot the right tense to the right context.’ e) Writing. ‘They need to improve their writing. I want to ask them to write for a few minutes in class, but am worried they might just make a lot of mistakes and not learn anything.’ f ) Grammar practice. ‘They need to practise forming and asking questions. I thought of using an interview situation; they might interview me or each other.’ g) New vocabulary. ‘I want to introduce some new vocabulary in preparation for a text we’re going to read.’
Communicative style: basing teaching on communication, both as the target that the students need to achieve, and as the means of acquiring it in the classroom. In general, the communicative style is appropriate for students and societies that value international goals of a non-specific kind. The teacher using it with a particular class has to remember that it will not appeal to students with other types of goal, say an interest in language structure or a desire for personal liberation. Typical teaching techniques: information gap, role plays, tasks Goals: getting students to interact with other people in the second language, in the classroom and outside Type of student: field-independent students rather than field-dependent students, extroverts rather than introverts, and less academic students. Learning assumptions: learning by communicating with other students in the classroom: laissez-faire, some use of conscious understanding of grammar Classroom assumptions: teacher as organizer, not source of language knowledge Weaknesses from an SLA research perspective: lack of views on discourse processes, communication strategies, etc., black box model of learning, lack of role for the first language Suggestions for teaching: use with appropriate students in appropriate circumstances; supplement with other components of language; avoid trivialization of content and aims. Card 5
Approaches to the giving of feedback Audio-lingualism Negative assessment is to be avoided as far as possible since it functions as ‘punishment’ and may inhibit or discourage learning. Positive assessment provides reinforcement of correct responses, and promotes learning. Humanistic methodologies A crucial function of the giving of assessment is to preserve and promote a positive self-image of the learner as a person and language learner. Assessment therefore should be positive or non-judgemental. Skill theory For successful acquisition of a skill, the learner needs feedback on how well he or she is doing; hence the importance of the provision of constant and honest assessment (Johnson, 1995).
Functions of feedback: 1) Instructional - clarifies roles or teachers new behaviors 2) Motivational - Serves as a reward or promise of a reward Can be significantly enhanced by pairing specific, challenging goals with specific feedback about results
Gathering information (1): tests The most common way of gathering information for assessment is through tests; the usual criterion is an arbitrary level which the learner is expected to have reached; and the result is generally expressed through percentages. Gathering information (2): other sources 1. Teacher’s assessment. The teacher gives a subjective estimate of the learner’s overall performance. 2. Continuous assessment. The final grade is some kind of combination of the grades the learner received for various assignments during the course. 3. Self-assessment. The learners themselves evaluate their own performance, using clear criteria and weighting systems agreed on beforehand. 4. Portfolio. The learner gathers a collection of assignments and projects done over a long period into a file; and this portfolio provides the basis for evaluation. Assessment grades Percentages are probably the most common way of expressing assessment grades, but there are others. 1. Letters, words or phrases & numbers: ‘A’ or ‘B’; ‘Good’, ‘Excellent’, 2, 3, 4, 5 2. Profiles: a totally different kind of expression of assessment, comprising a number of separate grades on different skills or sections of knowledge, so that there is a possibility of describing the performance of an individual student in more detail, showing his or her various strengths and weaknesses. The task cycle A. task. The students carry out the task in pairs with the teacher monitoring. B. planning. The students decide how to report back to the whole group. C. report. The students make their reports. Language focus A. analysis. Students discuss how others carried out the task on a recording. B. practice. The teacher practices new language that has cropped up. Typical teaching techniques:meaning-based tasks with definite outcomes Goals: fluency, accuracy, complexity. Type of student: possibly less academic. Learning assumptions: language acquisition takes place through meaning-based tasks with a specific short-term goal. Classroom assumptions: teaching depends on organizing tasks based on meaning with specific outcomes. Suggestions for teaching: Ø use in conjunction with other styles, not as a style on its own; Ø useful as a way of planning and preparing lessons. The mainstream EFL style: Typical teaching techniques: presentation, substitution, role play. Goals: getting students to know and use language. Type of student: any. Learning assumptions: understanding, practice and use. Classroom assumptions: both teacher-controlled full classes and internal small groups. Weaknesses from an SLA research perspective: Ø combination of other styles; Ø lack of role for the L1; Ø drawbacks of mixture of styles. Suggestions for teaching: Ø do not worry about the mixture of different sources; Ø remember that even this rich mixture still does not cover all aspects relevant to L2 teaching. Card 6 What is discipline? Discipline is a key component to effective classroom management. Classroom discipline refers to the strategies a teacher uses to manage student behaviors and attitudes during instructional time. A teacher who uses consistent discipline strategies exhibits more effective classroom management than an inconsistent teacher. Though teachers usually develop their own styles of discipline for their classrooms, most discipline strategies can be categorized into three main styles or approaches. Episode 1 The teacher of a mixed class of thirteen-year-olds is working through a class reader in an English lesson. He asks Terry to read out a passage. ‘Do we have to do this book?’ says Terry. ‘It’s boring.’ Some members of the class smile, one says ‘I like it’, others are silent awaiting the teacher’s reaction. (from E.C. Wragg, Class Management and Control, Macmillan, 1981, p. 12) Episode 2 The teacher is explaining a story. Many of the students are inattentive, and there is a murmur of quiet talk between them. The teacher disregards the noise and speaks to those who are listening. Finally she reproaches, in a gentle and sympathetic way, one student who is talking particularly noticeably. The student stops talking for a minute or two, then carries on. This happens once or twice more, with different students. The teacher does not get angry, and continues to explain, trying (with only partial success) to draw students’ attention through occasional questions. (adapted from Sarah Reinhorn-Lurie, Unpublished research project on classroom discipline, Oranim School of Education, Haifa, 1992) Episode 3 The teacher has prepared a worksheet and is explaining how to do it. He has extended his explanation to the point where John, having lost interest in the teacher’s words, begins to tap a ruler on his desk. At first the tapping is occasional and not too noticeable, but John begins to tap more frequently and more noisily, building up to a final climax when he hits the table with a very loud bang. The class, startled by the noise, falls silent, and looks at both John and the teacher to see what will happen. (adapted from E.C. Wragg, Class Management and Control, Macmillan, 1981, p. 18) Episode 4 The teacher begins by giving out classroom books and collecting homework books. Teacher (to one of the boys): This book’s very thin. Boy 1: Yeah, ’tis, isn’t it. Teacher: Why? Boy 1: I’ve been drawing in it. Boy 2: He’s been using it for toilet paper, sir. (Uproar) (adapted from E. C. Wragg, (ed.) Classroom Teaching Skills, Croom Helm, 1984, p. 32) Episode 5 The students have been asked to interview each other for homework and write reports. In this lesson they are asked to read aloud their reports. A few students refuse to do so. The teacher tells these students to stand up before the class and be interviewed by them. They stand up, but do not relate to the questions seriously: answer facetiously, or in their mother tongue, or not at all. The teacher eventually sends them back to their places, and goes on to the next planned activity, a textbook exercise. (adapted from Sarah Reinhorn-Lurie´, Unpublished research project on classroom discipline, Oranim School of Education, Haifa, 1992)
The mainstream style of teaching developed in British-influenced EFL from the 1930s up to the present day. Till the early 1970s, it mostly reflected a compromise between the academic and the audio-lingual styles, combining, say, techniques of grammatical explanation with techniques of automatic practice. Harold palmer in the 1920s saw classroom L2 learning as a balance between the ‘studial’ capacities by which people learnt a language by studying like any content subject, that is to say, what is called here an academic style, and the ‘spontaneous’ capacities through which people learn language naturally and without thinking, seen by him in similar terms to the audio-lingual style. Card 7 Extrinsic motivation Success and its rewards This is perhaps the single most important feature in raising extrinsic motivation. Learners who have succeeded in past tasks will be more willing to engage with the next one, more confident in their chances of succeeding, and more likely to persevere in their efforts.
Failure and its penalties Failure in any sense is generally regarded as something to be avoided, just as success is something to be sought.
Authoritative demands Learners are often motivated by teacher pressure: they may be willing to invest effort in tasks simply because you have told them to, recognizing your authority and right to make this demand, and trusting your judgement.
Tests The motivating power of tests appears clear: students who know they are going to be tested on specific material next week will normally be more motivated to study it carefully than if they had simply been told to learn it.
Competition Students will often be motivated to give of their best not for the sake of the learning itself but in order to beat their opponents in a competition.
CLL, Suggestopedia Community language Learning CLL , founder Charles Arthur Curran (1960), is language-teaching method in which students work together to develop what aspects of a language they would like to learn. It is based on the Counseling-approach in which the teacher acts as a counsellor and a paraphraser, while the learner is seen as a client and collaborator. Advantages: CLL is an attempt to overcome the threatening affective factors in EFL and ESL. The teacher as a counselor allow the learners to determine type of conversation and to analyze the language inductively The student centered nature of the method can provide extrinsic motivation and capitalize on intrinsic motivation. Disadvantages: The counselor/teacher can become too non directive. Students often need directions. The method relies completely on inductive learning, but it should be noted method of deduction is also important in FLL. Translation is a complex and difficult task. The success of the method relies largely on the translation expertise of the counselor. Suggestopedia Founder Georgi Lozanov (1970), like Community Language Learning and the Silent Way Method, Suggestopedia is an innovative method that promises great effective language learning results. The name of Suggestopedia is from the words “suggestion” and “pedagogy.” It is a set of learning recommendations derived from Suggestology, which Lozanov describes as “a science … concerned with systematic study of the nonrational and/or non-conscience influences” that human beings are constantly responding to. Advantages: Through Suggetopedia we learn to trust the power of the mind. We also learn that deliberately induced states of relaxation can be valuable at times in the classroom. We can also benefit from the use of music to get students sit back and relax. Disadvantages: It is not a practical method as teachers face the problem of the availability of music and comfortable chairs. Author emphasizes the importance of memorization, excluding any reference to comprehension and creative problem solving. In fact language is not only about the power of the mind to memorize. It’s about understanding, interacting and producing novel utterances in different unpredictable situations. Card 8 What is a syllabus? The word syllabus derives from modern Latin syllabus "list", in Greek it means "parchment label, table of contents", which first occurred in a 15th-century. A syllabus is an outline and summary of topics to be covered in an education program or training course. It is descriptive (unlike the prescriptive or specific curriculum). A syllabus may be set out by an exam board or prepared by the professor who supervises or controls course quality.
( ADDITIONAL: A language teaching syllabus involves the integration of subject matter (what to talk about) and linguistic matter (how to talk about it); that is, the actual matter that makes up teaching. Choices of syllabi can range from the more or less purely linguistic, where the content of instruction is the grammatical and lexical forms of the language, to the purely semantic or informational, where the content of instruction is some skill or information and only incidentally the form of the language. To design a syllabus is to decide what gets taught and in what order. For this reason, the theory of language explicitly or implicitly underlying the language teaching method will play a major role in determining what syllabus is adopted. Theory of learning also plays an important part in determining the kind of syllabus used. For example, a syllabus based on the theory of learning espoused by cognitive code teaching would emphasize language forms and whatever explicit descriptive knowledge about those forms was presently available. A syllabus based on an acquisition theory of learning, however, would emphasize unanalyzed, though possibly carefully selected experiences of the new language in an appropriate variety of discourse types. The choice of a syllabus is a major decision in language teaching, and it should be made as consciously and with as much information as possible. There has been much confusion over the years as to what different types of content are possible in language teaching syllabi and as to whether the differences are in syllabus or method. Several distinct types of language teaching syllabi exist, and these different types may be implemented in various teaching situations.)
Using the syllabus Although the types of syllabus content are defined here in isolated contexts, it is rare for USE one type of syllabus or content to be used exclusively in actual teaching settings. Syllabi or content types are usually combined in more or less integrated ways, with one type as the organizing basis around which the others are arranged and related. In discussing syllabus choice and design, it should be kept in mind that the issue is not which type to choose but which types, and how to relate them to each other. It is clear that no single type of content is appropriate for all teaching settings, and the needs and conditions of each setting are so idiosyncratic that specific recommendations for combination are not possible. In addition, the process of designing and implementing an actual syllabus warrants a separate volume. Several books are available that address the process of syllabus design and implementation both practically and theoretically. ADDITIONAL :Ten steps in preparing a practical language teaching syllabus: 1. Determine, to the extent possible, what outcomes are desired for the students in the instructional program. That is, as exactly and realistically as possible, define what the students should be able to do as a result of the instruction. 2. Rank the syllabus types presented here as to their likelihood of leading to the outcomes desired. Several rankings may be necessary if outcomes are complex. 3. Evaluate available resources in expertise (for teaching, needs analysis, materials choice and production, etc.), in materials, and in training for teachers. 4. Rank the syllabi relative to available resources. That is, determine what syllabus types would be the easiest to implement given available resources. 5. Compare the lists made under Nos. 2 and 4. Making as few adjustments to the earlier list as possible, produce a new ranking based on the resources' constraints. 6. Repeat the process, taking into account the constraints contributed by teacher and student factors described earlier. 7. Determine a final ranking, taking into account all the information produced by the earlier steps. 8. Designate one or two syllabus types as dominant and one or two as secondary. 9. Review the question of combination or integration of syllabus types and determine how combinations will be achieved and in what proportion. 10. Translate decisions into actual teaching units. In making practical decisions about syllabus design, one must take into consideration all the possible factors that might affect the teachability of a particular syllabus. By starting with an examination of each syllabus type, tailoring the choice and integration of the different types according to local needs, one may find a principled and practical solution to the problem of appropriateness and effectiveness in syllabus design. Confluent Language Teaching Teaching for the three-fold goals of self reflection, interpersonal dialog, and skills mastery is confluent language education. The term "confluent" is used to describe the process whereby the traditional educational goal of subject skills mastery is merged with the newly emerging humanistic goals of intrapersonal awareness and growth and interpersonal dialog. In confluent language classes students practice structures that enable them to reflect upon their own needs, wants, concerns, interests, values, activities, and behaviors, and to share these with others. The content of all language practice is derived from student offered material. Four key processes are observable in confluent classes: (1) Language practice immersed in the "here and now" reality of class interaction. (2) Content of language practice based upon student offered material, both cognitive (ideas, thoughts, facts) and affective (feelings, personal images, values, interests). (3) Close relationships established among class members. (4) Self-reflection and self-disclosure encouraged as a means to self knowledge. The confluent approach of teaching the language is based on Suggestopedia language learning basis which was first pioneered by Eric Hawkins at the University of York. The essence of the confluence teaching is a process of holistic approach, involving body, mind, emotion and spirit. Moreover, this holistic teaching, Suggestopedia complements the holistic approach by integrating such key elements which stimulate cognitive and affective capabilities able to put the learner in certain conditions known as to accelerated teaching. As a result, Confluent teaching is based on the learner’s interests bouncing to self-learning, interpersonal sharing and dialogue, and self-awareness. The learners study multi-dimensionally about themselves and others at the same time learning the traditional structures of the language. Confluent teaching methods are incorporated into already existing methods and materials which purpose is to serve the expanding of traditional materials. The objective of Confluent teaching methods is to incorporate them affectively into interpersonal learning language process. CARD 9
ADVANTAGES 1. Framework. A coursebook provides a clear framework: teacher and learners know where they are going and what is coming next, so that there is a sense of structure and progress. 2. Syllabus. In many places the coursebook serves as a syllabus: if it is followed systematically, a carefully planned and balanced selection of language content will be covered. 3. Ready-made texts and tasks. The coursebook provides texts and learning tasks which are likely to be of an appropriate level for most of the class. This of course saves time for the teacher who would otherwise have to prepare his or her own. 4. Economy. A book is the cheapest way of providing learning material for each learner; alternatives, such as kits, sets of photocopied papers or computer software, are likely to be more expensive relative to the amount of material provided. 5. Convenience. A book is a convenient package. It is bound, so that its components stick together and stay in order; it is light and small enough to carry around easily; it is of a shape that is easily packed and stacked; it does not depend for its use on hardware or a supply of electricity. 6. Guidance. For teachers who are inexperienced or occasionally unsure of their knowledge of the language, the coursebook can provide useful guidance and support. 7. Autonomy. The learner can use the coursebook to learn new material, review and monitor progress with some degree of autonomy. A learner without a coursebook is more teacher-dependent.
DISADVANTAGES 1. Inadequacy. Every class – in fact, every learner – has their own learning needs: no one coursebook can possibly supply these satisfactorily. 2. Irrelevance, lack of interest. The topics dealt with in the coursebook may not necessarily be relevant or interesting for your class. 3. Limitation. A coursebook is confining: its set structure and sequence may inhibit a teacher’s initiative and creativity, and lead to boredom and lack of motivation on the part of the learners. 4. Homogeneity. Coursebooks have their own rationale and chosen teaching/learning approach. They do not usually cater for the variety of levels of ability and knowledge, or of learning styles and strategies that exist in most classes. 5. Over-easiness. Teachers find it too easy to follow the coursebook uncritically instead of using their initiative; they may find themselves functioning merely as mediators of its content instead of as teachers in their own right.
Coursebook assessment Stage 1: Deciding on criteria CRITERIA FOR COURSEBOOK ASSESSMENT
Stage 2: Applying criteria. Take a locally-used coursebook and examine it, applying the criteria you have, note your ratings. You might use a similar code to the one employed in Stage 1: a single or double tick indicates that the book scores high, or very high, on this criterion; a cross or double cross that it scores low or very low; and a question mark shows that you are not sure, or that the criterion applies only partially. You might compare notes with other participants who have looked at the same materials, and see if you can come to a consensus on most or all of the items. Stage 3: Summary. Note that for this you need to compare the two columns you have filled; it is not enough simply to ‘add up’ the right-hand column. For example, if the book has scored very high on a criterion which you rated unimportant, this is less in its favour than a fairly high rating on a criterion you see as essential.
Using a coursebook – pronunciation practice – introduction of new vocabulary and practice – grammar explanations and practice – recordings for listening practice – listening and speaking communicative tasks – reading and writing communicative tasks – mixed-skills communicative tasks – short and long reading texts – dictionary work – review of previously learnt material – some entertaining or fun activities
Supplementary materials Package 1: A set of computers for learners’ use, with accompanying language-learning programs on floppy disk. Package 2: A set of reference books for the teachers, including: grammars, dictionaries; various specialized textbooks; handbooks of activities; and a subscription to a teachers’ journal of your choice. Package 3: A number of overhead projectors and slide projectors, with all necessary film, slides and markers. Package 4: Video equipment, with assorted cassettes, including language-learning material and films in the target language. Package 5: Computers and printers for teachers’ use; each computer has a hard disk with the latest word processor and various programs that enable you to compose your own computer tasks for learners. Package 6: Several cassette recorders with accompanying earphones (so that several learners can listen quietly to one machine); a selection of accompanying cassettes for language learning. Package 7: A wide variety of posters and sets of coloured pictures, plus board and card games for language learning. Package 8: A library of simplified readers in the target language, ranging from very simple to advanced. There would be enough books in this library to enable all students to borrow freely.
Self-directed learning With a coursebook one is able to conduct a self assessed learning. This way, a person can gain a systematic knowledge in case there is no possibility for supervised learning. Coursebook can be used as guidelines for self studying and later on, to check whether the required knowledge has been acquired.
SKILL LEARNING :
Stage 1: Selecting samples Think of one or more examples of language practiceof any kind which you have experienced either as teacher or as learner,and which you consider were effective in helping the learners to remember, ‘automatize’,or increase their ease of use. Write down brief descriptions of them. Stage 2: Analysis Consider: what were the factors, or characteristics,that in your opinion made these activitieseffective? Note down, either on your own or in collaboration with other participants, at least two such characteristics – more if you can. Stage 3: Discussion. Share and compare ideas with those of your trainer and other participants, and discuss.
PRACTICE SCENARIOS Scenario1: Spelling Thisis based on the game‘Hangman’. The teacher write sseven dashes on the board, and invites the students to guess what letters they represent. And they start guessing letters: . . . And so on. Aftera minuteor so of guessing, the class arrives at the word ‘JOURNAL’,which is written up in full on the board. It is thenerased, and the teacher,or a student, thinks of an other word, marks upthe corresponding number of dashes, and the guessing processis repeated. Scenario2: Listening comprehension The class listen to the some recorded text. The teacher then tells the students to open their books and answer the multiple-choice questions on a certain page. When the students have finished,the teacher asks volunteers for their answers,accepting or correcting as appropriate. Scenario3: Grammar exercise The teacher writes on the board a sentence that describes a present situation. Scenario 4: Vocabulary.(After another few guesses, the last of which, after broad hints from the teacher,comes fairly near, the teacher finally gives the correct definition.)
SEQUENCING PRACTICE ACTIVITIES Activity 1 The teacher has written on the board a selection of random numbers, in figures. He or she points to a number; the students call out its name. Activity 2 The teacher has prepareda duplicated list of telephone numbers– the list has at least as many numbersas there are students in the class. On each paper a different number has been marked witha cross; this indicates to the student who gets the paper which is ‘his/her’ number. A student ‘dials’ a number by calling it out, and the student whose number has been ‘dialled’ answers, repeats the number and identifies him-or herself. Other students can then fill in the name opposite the appropriate number on their lists. The identified student then ‘dials’ someone else, and so on. Activity 3 Pairs of students are allotted numbers from one to twenty, so that any one number is shared by two students. They then mix, and sit in a circle. One student in the centre of the circle calls out a number, and the two students who own that number try to change places. As soon as one of them gets up, the student in the centre tries to sit in the vacated place before it can be filled. If successful, he or she takes over the number of the displaced player who then becomes the caller. Activity 4 The learners write down, as figures, a series of random numbers dictated by the teacher. The answers are then checked.
Typical teaching techniques: grammatical explanation, translation, etc. Goals Ø directly, individual learning of the second language as an academic subject; Ø indirectly, ability to use language. Type of student: academically gifted, not young children. Learning assumptions: acquisition of conscious grammatical knowledge and its conversion to use. Classroom assumptions: formal, teacher-controlled. Weaknesses from an SLA research perspective: Ø inadequate use of grammar; Ø inefficient as a means of teaching language use. Suggestions for teaching: Ø use it with academic students who have individual goals of self-development rather than international or local goals; Ø supplement it with other components and processes of language; Ø remember to develop the powerful individual goals for the students, rather than be carried away by the sheer knowledge of grammar.
Card 2
Tests may be used as a means to: 1. Give the teacher information about where the students are at the moment, to help decide what to teach next; 2. Give the students information about what they know, so that they also have an awareness of what they need to learn or review; 3. Assess for some purpose external to current teaching (a final grade for the course, selection); 4. Motivate students to learn or review specific material; 5. Get a noisy class to keep quiet and concentrate; 6. Provide a clear indication that the class has reached a ‘station’ in learning, such as the end of a unit, thus contributing to a sense of structure in the course as a whole; 7. Get students to make an effort (in doing the test itself), which is likely to lead to better results and a feeling of satisfaction; 8. Give students tasks which themselves may actually provide useful review or practice, as well as testing; 9. Provide students with a sense of achievement and progress in their learning.
1. The theoretical concepts: validity, reliability, backwash (or washback). 2. The distinction between the following pairs of concepts: – achievement v. proficiency tests – diagnostic v. prognostic tests – discrete-point v. integrative tests – subjective v. objective tests. 3. The form of the following types of test items: – multiple-choice (including the concepts of ‘stem’, ‘options’, ‘distractors’) – cloze.
1. Questions and answers. Simple questions, very often following reading, or as part of an interview; may require short or long answers: What is the (family) relationship between David Copperfield and Mr Murdstone? 2. True/false. A statement is given which is to be marked true or false. This may also be given as a question, in which case the answer is yes or no. Addis Ababa is the capital of Egypt. Is Addis Ababa the capital of Egypt? 3. Multiple choice. The question consists of a stem and a number of options (usually four), from which the testee has to select the right one. A person who writes books is called a) a booker. b) an editor. c) an author. d) a publisher. 4. Gap-filling and completion. The testee has to complete a sentence by filling a gap or adding something. A gap may or may not be signaled by a blank or dash; the word to be inserted may or may not be given or hinted at. They (go) to Australia in 1980. Or They to Australia in 1980. (go) Or A is someone who writes books. Or I’ve seen that film. (never) 5. Matching. The testee is faced with two groups of words, phrases or sentences; each item in the first group has to be linked to a different item in the second. large small unhappy many a lot big little sad 6. Dictation. The tester dictates a passage or set of words; the testee writes them down. 7. Cloze. Words are omitted from a passage at regular intervals (for example, every seventh word). Usually the first two or three lines are given with no gaps. The family are all fine, though Leo had a bad bout of flu last week. He spent most of it lying on the sofa watching when he wasn’t sleeping! His exams in two weeks, so he is about missing school, but has managed to quite a lot in spite feeling ill. 8. Transformation. A sentence is given; the testee has to change it according to some given instruction. Put into the past tense: I go to school by bus. 9. Rewriting. A sentence is given; the testee rewrites it, incorporating a given change of expression, but preserving the basic meaning. He came to the meeting in spite of his illness. Although . . . 10. Translation. The testee is asked to translate expressions, sentences or entire passages to or from the target language. 11. Essay. The testee is given a topic, such as ‘Childhood memories’, and asked to write an essay of a specific length. 12. Monologue. The testee is given a topic or question and asked to speak about it for a minute or two.
Validity. Check that your items really do test what they are meant to! Clarity. Make sure the instructions for each item are clear. They should usually include a sample item and solution. ‘Do-ability’. The test should be quite do-able: not too difficult, with no trick questions. Ask other participants to read through it and answer the questions before finalizing. Marking. Decide exactly how you will assess each section of the test, and how much weighting (percentage of the total grade) you will give it. Make the marking system as simple as you can, and inform the testees what it is: write in the number of points allotted after the instructions for each question. Interest. Try to go for interesting content and tasks, in order to make the test more motivating for the learners. Heterogeneity. The test should be such that lower-level students can feel that they are able to do a substantial part of the test, while the higher-level ones have a chance to show what they know. So include both easy and difficult items, and make one or more of the difficult ones optional.
Test administration Before the test we should inform our students about what is going to be in it, and about the criteria for marking in order to prepare at home; to give information about the time, place, any limitations or rules; to give them any ‘tips’ about how best to cope with the test format; Giving the test to add something when the papers have been distributed but students have not yet started work; during the test not to disturb students, only check whether they are cheating or not. After the test define the time when we can to mark and return the papers; to go through them in class.
Audio-lingual method, founders Charles Fries, Robert Lado (1940-1950). Similar to Direct method. Like the DA, the ALM advised that students be taught a language directly, without using the student’s native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the DA, the ALM does not focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drills the students in the use of grammar. Advantages: Listening and speaking skills are emphasized. Using of effective visual aids in vocabulary teaching. This approach is very functional and easy to work in larger groups. Provides correct pronunciation and structure of words and sentences. Disadvantages: It does not pay sufficient attention to communicative competence. Only language form is considered, not meaning. Pay attention only to listening and speaking while writing and reading are neglected. It is a teacher-centered method. Card 3
A lesson plan is the instructor’s road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done effectively during the class time. Before you plan your lesson, you will first need to identify the learning objectives for the class meeting. Then, you can design appropriate learning activities and develop strategies to obtain feedback on student learning. A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates these three key components: Ø Objectives for student learning Ø Teaching/learning activities Ø Strategies to check student understanding Specifying concrete objectives for student learning will help you determine the kinds of teaching and learning activities you will use in class, while those activities will define how you will check whether the learning objectives have been accomplished.
Stage 1: Preliminary study is seven questions about lesson preparation. Start by answering them yourself, in writing. After writing each response, leave two or three lines empty before going on to the next. Stage 2: Interview Now interview at least two language teachers who are experienced and (as far as you can tell) conscientious and competent professionals. Ask them the same questions, stressing that what you want to know is what they actually do in daily practice, not what they think they ought to do! Stage 3: Results Share your results with other participants. Can you make any generalizations, or does lesson preparation seem to be entirely idiosyncratic? Stage 4: Conclusions Think about or discuss the evidence you have gathered. What conclusions can you draw? Try to assess critically the relevance and usefulness of these conclusions for your own practice. Stage 5: Personal application. Finally, revert to the answers you wrote yourself at the beginning of this process, and add notes be low each one, recording ideas you have learned from this inquiry that may be helpful to you in future lesson planning.
Ø Brainstorm Ø Guidelines for ordering components of a lesson: 1. Put the harder tasks earlier 2. Have quieter activities before lively ones 3. Think about transitions 4. Pull the class together at the beginning and the end 5. End on a positive note. Ø Discussion task: Think about or discuss the questions Ø Follow-up observation task: Observe one or two foreign language lessons, noting down in detail what the components are and how they are organized. The lessons should preferably be given by a teacher you do not know; or a video recording can be used.
Ø Evaluating criteria: Imagine you have just come out of a lesson– whether your own, or one that you have observed – and wish to assess how effective it was. Ø Practice and/or observation: The aim of this task is to try to evaluate the effectiveness of a lesson. The lesson itself could be one of the following possibilities: 1. Most usefully: one you yourself have planned and taught, based on a unit in a course book or syllabus you use or are familiar with. 2. One taught by someone else. 3. Less effective: a video recording of a lesson. 4. As a final resort Try to evaluate how good the lesson was, using the criteria and priorities you have worked on in this unit. If you have observed together with other participants, come together after the lesson to compare notes.
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