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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
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Years in office | ||||
| 1 | George Washington | 1789- 1797 | ||
| 2 | John Adams | 1797- 1801 | ||
| 3 | Thomas Jefferson | 1801 - 1809 | ||
| 4 | James Madison | 1809-1817 | ||
| 5 | James Monroe | 1817-1825 | ||
| 6 | John Quincy Adams | 1825 - 1829 | ||
| 7 | Andrew Jackson | 1829-1837 | ||
| 8 | Martin van Buren | 1837- 1841 | ||
| 9 | William Henry Harrison | 1841 | ||
| 10 | John Tyler | 1841- 1845 | ||
| 11 | James Knox Polk | 1845-1849 | ||
| 12 | Zachary Taylor | 1849- 1850 | ||
| 13 | Millard Fillmore | 1850-1853 | ||
| 14 | Franklin Pierce | 1853- 1857 | ||
| 15 | James Buchanan | 1857- 1861 | ||
| 16 | Abraham Lincoln | 1861-1865 | ||
| 17 | Andrew Johnson | 1865-1869 | ||
| 18 | Ulysses Simpson Grant | 1869-1877 | ||
| 19 | Rutherford B. Hayes | 1877- 1881 | ||
| 20 | James A. Garfield | 1881 | ||
| 21 | Chester A. Arthur | 1881-1885 | ||
| 22 | Stephen Grover Cleveland | 1885-1889 | ||
| 23 | Benjamin Harrison | 1889 - 1893 | ||
| 24 | Stephen Grover Cleveland | 1893 - 1897 | ||
| 25 | William McKinley | 1897- 1901 | ||
| 26 | Theodore Roosevelt | 1901-1909 | ||
| 27 | William Howard Taft | 1909-1913 | ||
| 28 | Woodrow Wilson | 1913-1921 | ||
| 29 | Warren Harding | 1921 - 1923 | ||
| 30 | Calvin Coolidge | 1923 - 1929 | ||
| 31 | Herbert Hoover | 1929-1933 | ||
| 32 | Franklin Delano Roosevelt | 1933 - 1945 | ||
| 33 | Harry S. Truman | 1945 - 1953 | ||
| 34 | Dwight David Eisenhower | 1953-1961 | ||
| 35 | John Fitzgerald Kennedy | 1961 - 1963 | ||
| 36 | Lindon Johnson | 1963 - 1969 | ||
| 37 | Richard M. Nixon | 1969-1974 | ||
| 38 | Gerald Rudolf Ford | 1974-1977 | ||
| 39 | James Earl Carter | 1977-1981 | ||
| 40 | Ronald Wilson Reagan | 1981-1989 | ||
| 41 | George Bush | 1989 -1993 | ||
| 42 | William J. Clinton | 1993-2001 | ||
| 43 44 | George Walker Bush Barack Obama | 2001-2008 2008-
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VIII READ ADDITIONAL TEXT OF WASHINGTON D.C., THE CAPITAL OF THE USA
The metropolitan area occupies the 69-square-mile (179 sq km) District of Columbia (named for Christopher Columbus) beside the Potomac River. Most Americans are unaware that until 1800 the United States had five "capitals" or meeting places of the Congress - Princeton, Annapolis, Trenton, New York and Philadelphia. For various reasons none of these cities offered an ideal seat of government for the new nation. After the Constitution was adopted, the establishment of a new city was considered. President Washington pinpointed the exact location and Congress passed a bill for a federal city and capital on July 1790.
While the capital is named for George Washington, he did not name it. The first President called it simply "The Federal City," and the name "Washington" did not come into general use until after his death.The whole of the city, with its long wide avenues, with shady trees on both sides, its low buildings and its crowds of government officials, is unlike other American cities with their sky-scrapers and their noisy streets. Washington's skyline is dominated by the Capitol and the Washington Monument. There is a law against building structures higher than the Capitol.
The Capitol is the center of the city. From this center the city is divided into four section, or quadrants: North West, North East, South West and South East, which are usually abbreviated N.W., N.E., S.W., S.E. The Capitol is also the point from which the city streets are numbered or lettered. The streets east and west of the capitol are numbered 1st Street, 2nd Street and so on. Similarly, the streets to the north and to the south are named for letters of the alphabet - G Street, R Street, etc. A series of circles and squares occur at various intervals, and diagonal avenues radiate from them. The avenues are named after the original thirteen states, the longest and straightest of them being Massachusetts Avenue.
The Capitol is situated on Capitol Hill, the highest point in the city. The building got its name from the temple in Rome. It is the seat of the U.S. government. The central building is crowned by a great dome and connected at each end by galleries with a large wing, one of which contains the Senate Chamber, and the other - the Hall of Representatives. The dome rises 285 feet. On the very top of the dome there is the 19-foot bronze statue of Free-• dom. 36 columns surround the lower part of the dome, they represent the states in the Union at the time this building was designed. Beneath the dome is a monumental hall called Rotunda, adorned with works of art relating to American history.
The Library of Congress complex on Capitol Hill includes three buildings. The Thomas Jefferson Building, executed in Italian Renaissance style, is the oldest of these. The Library of Congress is the Nation's library, its services extend not only to Members and committees of the Congress, but to the executive and judicial branches of government, to libraries throughout the nation and the world, and to the scholars and researchers and artists and scientists who use its resources, though in 1800 President John Adams created a reference library for Congress only, signing the bill that provided for the removal of the seat of government to the new capital city of Washington.
The Capitol building looks over the Mall, a long expanse of green stretching to the Washington Monument and beyond. From the Capitol to the White House runs broad Pennsylvania Avenue. This is the route of the president's inauguration procession every four years, hence its nickname "The Processional Street of America."
The White House, official residence of the presidents of the USA is located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue. Every President except Washington lived there. The public is admitted during specified hours to a portion of the first floor: the Green Room, the Blue Room, where ambassadors and ministers of foreign countries are received and diplomatic functions held; the State Dining Room and the East Room, used for public receptions. President Washington selected the site and the architect was James Hoban. The cornerstone of the Executive Mansion, as it was originally known, dates from October 13, 1792. The British troops which arrived in Washington in 1814, were indirectly responsible for the name "White House": the building was fired by the British. Following the burning of the edifice, the marks of the fire on the sandstone walls were concealed by painting the whole building white. But it remained the "Executive Mansion" until the administration of Theodore Roosevelt when "White House" appeared and the term became official.
Behind the White House, situated on the hill is the Washington Monument. The cornerstone for the Monument was laid in 1848 but the Civil War delayed its completion for many years. It was finally opened to the public in 1888. The Monument is 555 feet (169m) high and from this level the whole panorama of the District of Columbia and even parts of Maryland and Virginia can be seen. Its shape is that of an obelisk, a white marble shaft with an aluminum tip, hence its nickname - the "Pencil."
Few pass through the city without walking up the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. It is set high on an artificial plateau at the end of the Mall. It is designed like a Greek temple with 36 marble columns to represent the states in the Union at the time of Lincoln's death. The first organized effort to erect a monument to Lincoln in Washington came 2 years after his death, when an act of Congress, approved March 29, 1867, incorporated the Lincoln Monument Association. The association appealed for subscriptions and prepared plans for the monument, but nothing was accomplished. In 1911 Congress passed the legislation that procured it -the appointed officials decided on the location of the memorial on the axis of the Capitol and the Washington Monument. In 1922, on Memorial Day, May 30, the completed memorial was presented to President Warren Harding, who accepted it for the United States. The white marble memorial's architectural lines are similar in plan to those of the Greek Parthenon, the temple to the goddess Athena on the Acropolis in Athens. The dominant feature of the building is the magnificent realistic figure of Lincoln seated in the center of the open temple. The statue from head to foot is 19 feet high, and carving the statue took more than 4 years, as there had been changes in the project connected with doubling the size of the figure to have it in conformity with the scale of the large hall. On the north wall, inscribed in stone, is Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address; on the south wall, similarly inscribed, is the Gettysburgh Address. There are also murals representing, allegorically, main principles and symbols of Lincoln's life and activities.
Washington has many other famous buildings and monuments - the Jefferson Memorial, the Grant Memorial, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Arlington Cemetery), the Smithsonian Institution, the National Gallery of Art, the National Air and Space Museum, etc.
Thomas Jefferson is considered the founder of the Democratic Party. The Memorial is designed after the Pantheon in Rome, which Jefferson admired so much. There is a 19-foot figure of him and panel that quotes from Jefferson's most famous writings including the Declaration of Independence.
The Arlington National Cemetery is the nation's famous burial ground. It is the site of the Tomb of the Unknowns, containing the unidentified remains of service members from both world wars, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. Here there is also the Tomb of the Unknown Civil War Dead. Pierre Charles L'Enfant's grave was placed at a spot that is believed to offer the best view of Washington, the city he designed. There is also the gravesite of President John F. Kennedy; and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis rests next to her husband. The 35th U.S. President's famous utterance is inscribed on the memorial wall: "And so my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country." The Smithsonian Institution was established as a result of a gift from an Englishman who never saw America in his life -a man named James Smithson who died in 1829 and left his fortune (half a million dollars - a very large sum in those days) to the U.S. to found "an institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." The Smithsonian group is administered by a separate group of trustees and includes scientific institutes, art galleries, zoos, the National Museum, the National Collection of Fine Arts, the Observatory, the National Gallery of Art, publishing centers, etc.
Nearby, the downtown business district contains historic Ford's Theatre where President Lincoln was mortally wounded in 1865. The Pentagon, headquarters of the Department of Defense, is often used as a symbolic reference for the armed forces. Its shape is five-sided — hence the name Pentagon. It has become the most important department in the U.S. federal government both in the number of employees and the amount of money spent. The Pentagon is the heart of the U.S. military-industrial complex.
No visit to Washington, D.C., is complete without an excursion to the home of G. Washington at Mount Vernon. The estate is on the Virginia shore of the Potomac River, 15 miles south of the capital. Mount Vernon is important to see because it has been preserved and restored as a typical 18th century plantation home.
IX TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:
1 Самое высокое здание американской столицы - Капитолий, воздвигнутый в стиле древнеримской эпохи цезарей на высоком холме.
2 Ни одно здание в Вашингтоне не должно превышать по высоте Капитолий. При приближении к этому зданию оно вдруг вырастает в размерах и имеет действительно величественный вид.
3 Белый дом - сравнительно невысокое здание, окруженное пышной зеленью деревьев и похожее на загородную усадьбу русского помещика XIX века.
4. Вашингтон знаменит зданиями ФБР и Пентагона, Арлингтонским кладбищем, Национальной галереей искусств, Национальным музеем воздухоплавания, Библиотекой конгресса, Музеем Смитсониеновского института, мемориалами президентов Вашингтона, Джефферсона, Линкольна, недавно открытого мемориала Рузвельта, все эти достопримечательности и привлекают в Вашингтон массу туристов со всего мира.
THE USA NATIONAL SYMBOLS
MIND THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE FOLLOWING DIFFICULT WORDS:
hoist [hOist] поднимать ( что-л. )
haphazard [h@p#h@z{d] случайный,
бессистемный.
inspire [in#spai{] (with) принуждать, побуждать, вдохновлять,
воодушевлять
update [[p#deit] обновлять,
модернизировать,
приводить в соответствие с современными
стандартами,
корректировать,
исправлять
Chesapeake Bay [#tSEs{,pi:k] Чесапикский залив
explode [ik#spl{ud] взрывать(ся)
target [#ta:git ] цель,
мишень ,посмешище
(о человеке );
объект, предмет издевок, насмешек, критики и пр.
Forefather [#fO:,fAD{ ] предок, предшественник
Scavenger [ #sk@vindZ{] животное,
питающееся отбросами, падалью
extinct [ik#stiNkt] вымерший; пресекшийся ( о роде ) .
virtue [#vE:tju] добродетель, достоинство
inscription [in #skripS{n] надпись
seclusion [si#klu:Z{n] отделение, изоляция,
уединение
personified [pE:#sani,faid] воплощенный,
олицетворенный
spike [spaik] острый выступ,
острие , шип,
гвоздь, клин
tyranny [ #tir{ni] деспотизм, деспотия,
тирания, тиранство
basements [#beism{nt] базис, основание,
фундамент, цоколь
recruiting [ ri#kru:tiN] вербовка, набор, наем
aforementioned [{#fO:,mEnS{nd] вышесказанный,
вышеупомянутый
progenitor [pr{u#dZEnit{] прародитель;
основатель рода;
предок, предтеча,
предшественник;
создатель; основатель
READ THE TEXT:
The United States Flag
In 1775, the American colonies were flying the British Flag called "The Union Jack" and decided that they needed to fly their own flag. Benjamin Franklin was the "New Flag" Committee chairman. He didn't want to totally shut off their connection to England, so he felt the flag should have a smaller Union Jack in one corner, with 6 white stripes alternating with 7 red stripes. This flag was hoisted on New Years Day (January 1) in 1776 on Prospect Hill near Cambridge, Massachusetts. It became known as the Grand Union Flag and was the first American flag.
But...once the Declaration of Independence was signed this flag became literally history and as they say today, 'not politically correct.' What to do? Well it took an act of Congress on 6-14-1777 to pass an official Flag Resolution stating the design of the flag with the red and white strips and the 13 stars in a blue.
Now they had problems with just how many points on a star. Some had 5 some had more. And some of the stars were in rows, some in circles and some were haphazard. Then they had to argue over which came first...a red stripe or a white stripe? After a while it became obvious that the flag could be seen from a longer distance better if it had a red stripe first and not a white one.
There is no proof that Betsy Ross actually sewed the first flag. Several men approached her for a flag design, but that doesn't mean she sewed it. Betsy suggested a 5 pointed star because she demonstrated how easy they were to make when you fold cloth a certain way and cut. An actual bill for the design of the flag was presented to Congress by Francis Hopkinson asking for payment for designing this flag. Congress denied his request saying he wasn't the sole designer. Some historians feel the flag was designed by a committee.
As America changed, so did the flag. Every time we got a new state, we also got a new star. Well, the stars were no problem, but after a while, we were getting over-striped. Imagine today if we had 50 stripes and stars? So, on January 13, 1794, Congress passed a second flag resolution stating "the flag shall have 15 stripes, alternate red and white with a union of 15 stars, white on blue field."
It was the 15 striped flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write the "Star Spangled Banner."
But, by 1817 the flag was getting bigger and bigger and had 20 stars and stripes. So once again Congress did a Flag Act in 1818 and decided that the flag should have no more than 13 red and white stripes (for the 13 original colonies), and only a NEW STAR would be added every time we got a state, but no more stripes of any color.
And then came the Civil War! Many angry Northerners wanted to remove the stars of the states that had succeeded from the union. But President Lincoln disagreed and was determined to hold the Union together. From 1861-1865 Union troops marched under a flag with all the stars and stripes. And in 1863, when West Virginia became a state during the Civil War, they even added it's star. Well, we all know how the war ended, and eventually both the North and the South were flying the same flag with the same number of stars and stripes.
On June 14, 1923 men from 68 patriotic groups met in Washington, DC to draw up a set of rules on how to handle the flag. In 1942, Congress put them all into the official Flag Code. The flag code is updated when necessary, most recently being 1976.
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The Star Spangled Banner
It was written during the War of 1812 - a different conflict between the US and British.
On September 13, 1814, Fort McHenry's (Maryland) flag was whipping around in the breeze while it was being attacked by the British. On the deck of the H.M.S. Tonnant in the Chesapeake Bay stood Francis Scott Key, an American lawyer.
He had come aboard with Colonel J.S. Skinner to get the release of Dr. William Beanes, an old doctor the British were holding captive. They managed to get Dr. Beanes released by proving he medically took care of both British and American soldiers. And while they were on this ship, they happened to overhear chit chat about British plans to invade Baltimore. So, all three of them suddenly were detained (but not really imprisoned) on this ship until the end of the battle so they could not go back and tell of what they heard.
The first shot towards Fort McHenry was fired on September 13 at 6:00 am (dawns early light?) It was non-stop. All day long Key and his companions watched this battle. At night, Key paced the decks as he watched bad ammunition explode in mid-air before it reached their targets (causing brief moments of light in which Key could see that the American flag was still flying!). Then it began to rain and Key couldn't see anything. They all sat and waited and felt that as long as it was noisy, the battle wasn't over. The Americans were still fighting back! So guess what happened in the morning when suddenly it was quiet? FOG! So who won? When the fog finally cleared and the sun rose in the sky, the 3 men looked out and saw the American flag still flying over Fort McHenry. The British were running!!
Inspired with joy, Francis Scott Key took out an envelope (from a letter he had started and never finished) and put down his feelings in a poem. He worked on it during his boat ride back to shore, and in his hotel room that night. The next day he brought a copy of the poem (all 4 verses) to his brother-in-law, Judge Joseph H. Nicholson, who immediately sent it to a printer and asked that copies be distributed throughout the city. The poem was titled "Defense of Fort McHenry" with a hint that if you wanted to sing it, it would go to the tune of "To Anacreon in Heaven" a popular song of the time. On September 20, 1814 the poem was in the Baltimore newspaper. The song caught on and everyone was singing it...probably badly but it's the spirit that counts.
In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that "The Star-Spangled Banner" (as it had come to be known by then but I don't know how) would be played at all state occasions. I am not sure how it became a tradition prior to all ball games?
But in 1931 Congress declared it our National Anthem. And what about that flag that Key kept seeing? Where is it? It is in the Smithsonian Museum.
The Eagle
It took 6 years of arguing to come up with a national emblem. We all know how Benjamin Franklin wanted the turkey, because the turkey was a domestic, useful and tasty. But the turkey wasn't impressive enough for most of our forefathers. On the other hand, many other nations were using eagles also. But Benjamin Franklin pointed out, "the eagle is a bird of bad moral character" because he was a scavenger that stole food from other birds.
So a compromised was reached in 1782 and Congress chose the BALD EAGLE, rather than the Golden Eagle (most commonly used by other countries) because the Bald Eagle was unique to North America and not used by other countries, while still having impressive nobility. Due to land mismanagement and other factors, the Bald Eagle population was almost extinct. In 1940 Congress passed a law forbidding the capture or killing of bald eagles. Since that time, with the banning of DDT in 1973 and other conservation acts, the Bald Eagle has made a comeback in America.
The Great Seal
The Great Seal of the United States is a round piece of metal cast on both sides. It was first commissioned by Congress after the signing of the Declaration of Independence. The final design was approved on June 20, 1782.
The Secretary of State keeps it for use on official documents (but only if the President orders it.) The front of the seal is the Bald Eagle, wings spread, with a shield of the US on his chest. The shield has 13 red and white stripes for the 13 original colonies. The shield stands on the eagle's chest with no support to represent that the US relies on itself, it's own virtue, for right and justice. The top of the shield is a horizontal blue stripe that represents Congress. And in one of the eagle's talons he holds an olive branch for peace. In the other it clutches arrows for war. In the beak is a ribbon with the inscription, "E pluribus Unum" meaning "From many, one." This was to mean, from many states come one nation. Above the eagle's head is a circular cloud filled with 13 5-pointed stars to mean "a glory" or breaking through a cloud.
The back of the seal has a 13 layer pyramid, once again to represent the 13 original colonies. The stone of the pyramid is to represent lasting strength.
And on the bottom is MDCCLXXVI for 1776 (The date of the Declaration of Independence.) So what does that big eye on the pyramid mean? It is to represent the all-seeing eye of Divine Providence. Above the pyramid are the Latin words "Annuit coeptis -" He [God] has favored our undertaking." And at the bottom of the pyramid are the words "Novus ordo seclorum -A new order of the ages [is created]."
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