Academic writing (for students)

Academic writing (for students)

What is 'academic writing'?

Academic writing is a particular style of writing that is characteristic of academic institutions. In other words, it is the style that is used by undergraduates, graduates and lecturers when they explore particular academic questions in essays, dissertations, PhD theses and academic papers. Although it shares many similarities with other styles of writing, it also has its own characteristic features, and it is these features that we will be examining.

The characteristic features that it exhibits give it a distinct style, and the great majority of students wishing to successfully complete a course of university study should ensure that their work reflects this style. If students are unwilling or unable to adopt an appropriate style, they are likely to have greater difficulties throughout their course. So what, in general, characterises academic writing? There are a number of factors and these relate to both the language itself and the structure.

A well-written academic essay will exhibit the following characteristics. It will:

· put forward a coherent argument

· support that argument with evidence

· show the writer’s knowledge of the subject

· show evidence of reading

· reflect independent thinking

· contain quotations

· contain references and a bibliography

· adopt a formal style

· be logical and analytical

· be clearly structured.

 

Spelling and punctuation

Here is the first paragraph of a student's essay. Read it though carefully and decide whether it is a competent piece of writing.

This essay will examine a number of issues relating to the growth of communism in China since 1900 and its later-day decline. In particular, we will explore the neo-feudal system that excited before 1900 and how the grow of new China was closely linked with the spread of communism the reasons for the failure of communism to achieve it's aims will also be explore.

 

Task

Now practise the general use of commas. Do you think that any of these sentences require additional commas?

· I tried to creep quietly down the stairs but despite my efforts they heard me and took me back.

· Because of the continuing fighting the UN was unable to continue the relief mission.

· Tony Blair the main speaker made the last speech.

· My brother who is a dentist enjoys watching soap operas. (I've one brother.)

· My brother who is a dentist enjoys watching soap operas. (I have 4 brothers)

· She's a lovely dancer but a lousy skater.

· His latest film Notting Hill has been very successful.

· Finally after much hesitation he came to the point.

· Underneath the garage was on fire.

· However subsequent research studies were unable to replicate the same results.

· The project which involved a range of departments from different universities was funded by an EU research grant.

· Domestic violence and especially violence against women can be a problem in all cultures however it has been particularly difficult to conduct research into this issue in the Muslim community for this study.

 

Semi-colons and colons

A semi-colon [; ] is a bit like a 'soft' full stop; wherever you can place a semi-colon, you can also place a full-stop. The writer may decide to use a semi-colon when there is an extra piece of related information to give to the reader which is closely related to the sentence before, and which the writer feels does not really require a sentence of its own. It is, in other words, used to join two parts of a sentence that could otherwise be left as two sentences.

It is very important to note that a semi-colon can never be replaced by a comma but this is often an error that writers make. In the two following examples, we could not use a comma:

I looked long and hard for the right material; nothing else would do.

The whole team was looking exhausted; Maria was clearly showing the strain.

A semi-colon can also be used for complicated lists, in collaboration with commas. For example:

The research study explored a number of geographical areas: the southern parts of Wales, Scotland and Ireland; the northerly tip of the Hebrides; the most north-western tip of France.

A colon [: ] is used to introduce a list, just as in the sentence above.

There are a number of possible solutions: medical, herbal or alternative.

The research team visited several sites: Larkness, Coaster and Ariemes.

A note on the use of however.

The word however is commonly used in academic writing and it is important to remember how it is used.

At the start of a sentence, it is normally followed by a comma.

However, Johansen’s later research was more productive.

When the word however appears in the middle of a sentence to introduce a contrast, it must follow a semi-colon and it must be followed by a comma.

The data suggest that foreign direct investment can have a significant affect on local industry; however, further research will be needed to confirm this finding.

The pattern of canals across the country provided a cheap and effective way to transport heavy goods for a hundred years; however, the development of a railway network would change all that.

 

Writing in a formal style

Essays are formal entities, and the language we use should reflect that. The style of an academic essay should be appropriate and consistent. This is very different from an informal piece of writing.

When we speak, or write informally, we often use multi-word verbs but this is not appropriate in formal writing. Here are some examples of multi-word verbs:

call up call off give in catch on turn up set up find out live down bring up look up take in (deceive)

call on (visit) look at go into (a problem) come by (a book) ask for believe in care for deal with long for object to part with

One of the differences between some of these verbs is that some of them can have an item inserted before the preposition:

he ran down the man - he ran the man down

he took on the challenge - he took the challenge on

the fire set back their plans - the fire set their plans back

 

In contrast, other verbs cannot have an item inserted before the preposition.

ask for a number? ask a number for

believe in a theory? believe a theory in

part with a lot of money? part a lot of money with

 

Multi-word verbs are very common in spoken English as they are less formal than single verbs. In contrast, single verbs can sometimes sound quite pompous in everyday speech. Compare:

I asked for another appointment.

I requested another appointment.

 

Now compare these pairs of verbs:

Informal	More formal
He checked up on his accountant. They put up with their neighbours. She caught on very quickly. She made up for it with an early night. He went down with a fever. The cost of living went up.	He investigated his accountant. They tolerated their neighbours. She understood very quickly. She compensated for it with an early night. He contracted a fever. The cost of living increased.

In formal writing, we use single verbs. This is an important element in achieving the correct style in academic writing. An essay with good ideas might well be marked down if the style is inappropriately informal.

Task

Use the verbs below to complete the sentences. Remember to change the verb into the correct tense.

postpone establish fluctuate investigate reduce

deceive maintain acquire

· The research team tried to find out the truth.

· The project managed to get hold of a new scanner.

· His discovery enabled school heads to cut down on the time lost between classes.

· When the team looked looking into the problem, they found that it was much more complex than they had first thought.

· The levels go up and down as a result of the pressure changes.

· The government put off a decision until they had heard the report.

· The inspector was taken in by the apparent calm in the building.

· The solicitor made out that his client was unfairly accused.

Task

Task

There are a variety of other factors that also characterise formal academic writing. Have a look at these sentences and underline those elements that reflect an informal style and would need to be changed in an academic essay,

1. As soon as you start to look carefully at social service provision in the community, you frequently find evidence of abuse.

2. The advisory panel set up by the government couldn't establish the cause of the disaster and in the end no blame was attached to the actions of the pilot.

3. The invasion of the island resulted in misery, starvation, destitution etc for large numbers of the people in the area and in addition the ruling party was unwilling to ask for aid.

4. This proposal creates a way for raising awareness in the UK of effective approaches to combat poverty practised by overseas partners.

5. The evidence produced at the enquiry was very damaging for the Prime Minister and anyone could see that he felt uncomfortable.

6. 1 believe that without clear leadership from the United Nations, we are likely to find ourselves in a similar position next year.

7. It is obvious that the decline of fish stocks in the North Sea will ultimately result in significant environmental damage in that area.

8. They found evidence of a fight when they studied the ancient body and they wrote a report which reflected their findings.

9. The results of the government study were great because they enabled the university to fund the new department.

10. It is certain that the new financial regulations will lead to a significant growth in output.

11. The research proves that drinking high levels of vitamin C may help to ward off colds in the winter.

12. The research was rigorous. But the way the results were used was poor. Few financial managers were trained in the new techniques. Little progress was made despite the hard work of the specialists.

Task

Rewrite this passage in a suitably academic style. When you have finished refer to the feedback. Your re-written passage does not need to be identical of course, but it should reflect an academic style.

The island was discovered in 1734 when a storm blew Sir Peter Newsbury off course and he stumbled upon this bit of land which no-one knew anything about before. Some excavations which have been carried out within the last ten years show us that members of the crew built houses to live in, and got through the very cold winter. Analysis of the soil in and around these buildings proves that the people liked to eat fish and fruit that they picked from the trees. However, despite the food that they had, it's obvious that their life was quite difficult because of the rocks and open ground and so on. People carrying out research have found debris from the ship close to the buildings. They have come up with a number of explanations for the smashing up of the ship but once you look at the waves you can see how dangerous the waters are in this area and there are lots of rocks and reefs and things like that.

The essay plan

Having put together as many relevant ideas as possible, the next stage is ordering these points in an appropriate way. The important thing is to try to build up a coherent picture of your essay so that you can use it as the foundation for your writing. Your plan may be modified and developed as you proceed but the important thing at each stage is to focus precisely on the essay question and try to ensure that your essay plan provides a logical response to the needs of the task.

An academic essay is likely to be divided into three main sections:

· an introduction

· the body of the essay (a number of paragraphs exploring the topic)

· a conclusion

The introduction and the conclusion are likely to be moderately short, while the main paragraphs in the body of the essay are likely to be similar in length.There might, for example, be two or three paragraphs to a page. If one paragraph is noticeably longer or shorter than others, it would be well worth re-examining this paragraph. It may need to be divided in two if it is too long, or expanded if it is too short. It would be very unusual for a paragraph to be only two sentences. A paragraph should never be merely one sentence in an academic essay.

It's very important to make your plan before you start to write. Try to express each point in your plan simply and clearly in note form. This will help you during the writing process. Look at this example:

Writing a paragraph

Constructing clearly defined paragraphs is the key to a good essay. Paragraphs can be seen as being rather like the bricks in a wall. They are all interdependent but they are also independent units. They support each other but they have their own character. Every paragraph will have its own focus and this will be different from that of any other paragraph in your essay. Each paragraph will be one element in your overall answer to the question that has been asked.

The topic of the paragraph must always be very clearly stated at the start. Not surprisingly, this first sentence is referred to as the topic sentence of the paragraph.

Paragraphing is an important convention of written English. It has developed as a visual way of helping the reader to follow an extended piece of writing. Paragraphs help us to understand how the sentences are grouped together and in this way they are very useful. The sentences within a paragraph explore one specific theme while a new paragraph indicates that a new topic or idea is being addressed. Paragraphs may be long or short, but each one will develop a particular topic point. Paragraphs are not a unit of length. There is no specific length for a paragraph in an academic essay, although in general we can say that three lines is too short and one full page is too long. It is very important that your paragraphs are sequenced in a logical order because they will provide the major building blocks for the argument in the essay. In the same way that blocks are placed one on top of each other to construct a building, so your paragraphs will be placed in such a way that you gradually build up your argument. Many students make the mistake of thinking that an academic essay is merely a description, but this is not correct. It is an integration of facts and evidence that provides the reader with a coherent argument. Your paragraphs should be steps in the development of your argument.

A text that has been well planned has well-organised paragraphs, and the purpose of each paragraph will be clearly signposted by its layout as well as by the language. First, a new paragraph will be marked out in one of two ways: either a full line is left between the paragraphs or the first word of the new paragraph is indented. Today, the majority of writers leave an empty line between the paragraphs. Second, a paragraph is a series of sentences that develops one idea, and in academic writing that idea is usually stated in one sentence (although it may not be the first sentence) and this is called the topic sentence. This is the most important sentence in the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph will support and elaborate the idea, and perhaps provide examples to illustrate the topic sentence. In some ways this is similar to a newspaper article where you often find that the first sentence of each paragraph states clearly what it is about. You may have noticed that you can skim through a newspaper article by reading the first sentence of each paragraph.

The paragraph topic statement can take several different forms.

· It may tell the reader what to expect in the paragraph: The survey results indicate that banks are failing their customers.

· It may be a statement that will be supported with evidence: The discovery indicates that the Bronze Age settlers built three types of houses.

· It may make a clear statement of belief and then go on to elaborate: Humour is one of the best ways of combating disease.

The topic sentence cannot be:

· a simple statement of fact: Paris is the capital of France.

· a vague opinion or comment: I think that banks in Britain are overcharging.

After the topic sentence, the writer must provide illustrations or evidence to support the topic sentence. These are called topic points. There may be several topic points in a paragraph and each one will be supported by specific details. The framework of your first three paragraphs might look like this:

· Topic sentence 1

· Topic point A: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc

· Topic point B: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc

· Topic point C: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc

· Topic sentence 2

· Topic point A: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc

· Topic point B: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc

· Topic point C: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc

· Topic sentence 3

· Topic point A: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc

· Topic point B: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc

· Topic point C: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc

Specific detail under the various topic points can comprise anything from examples, statistics, dates or description, as well as support for your argument from other writers through quotations, paraphrase or summary.

Trees

Trees are very important to us for many very practical reasons because of the uses to which the wood can be put. However, their value in economic terms is nothing compared to their role in helping to regulate the world's climate and providing fertile soil. The wholesale destruction of trees is a threat to us all because trees support life. A single tree can take up 1000-2000 litres of water from the ground every year, releasing most from the leaves as water vapour. This water vapour is then added to water vapour from other sources to form clouds. It eventually returns to the ground in the form of rain or possibly snow. This ability to move vast quantities of water vapour from one place to another has a significant effect on the regional climate and on local water table levels. Another factor is that the ground in a forest acts like an enormous sponge. It absorbs rainwater and holds it within the soil, releasing it gradually back into the atmosphere. Where trees have been cut down, the ground is unable to absorb water so easily and it runs off, rapidly causing flooding in other areas. A further factor is the degree to which most trees add to the fertility in the soil around them. Every year millions upon millions of leaves flutter down and rot into the soil, adding to the richness of the soil base in which other plants can grow. Insects thrive within this rich, damp environment and they are themselves a source of food for other animals up the food chain. All of them are threatened when trees are cut down in large numbers.

Paragraph development

In what ways can you develop your argument in the paragraphs? In academic writing, the writer must decide on the best way to present the information or the argument. Several approaches will be outlined here although, in practice, the approaches may overlap to some degree.

1. The paragraph might take the form of a comparison and/or contrast between two different systems or theories. For example, you may be comparing two views on a particular play or contrasting two political views.

2. Your paragraph could take on the form of an extended definition. For example, you may want to explain in detail what is meant by role modelling in an essay on the educational environment.

3. Your paragraph may take the form of a cause/effect analysis; for example, you may be analysing the causes and results of a particular event in history.

 

Look at the three paragraphs below, and decide which method of development the writer is using. Underline the topic sentence, and highlight the topic point and specific detail.

Beauty

It's an old cliché that beauty is in the eye of the beholder, but we see evidence of it everywhere we look. There is little doubt that people interpret beauty in many different ways. An archaeologist will see beauty in a bone or a fragment of stone while others will see only a fragment of matter. A scientist will see beauty in a formula or a chemical reaction while others will turn away in confusion or disgust. A dog breeder will see beauty in a particular breed of dog while their neighbour will see only a drawling, smelly beast busy fouling the roadways given half a chance. A businessman may see beauty in healthy bank statement. For me, beauty does not reside in matter or other living beings, but in music. A violin being played by a talented musician can easily reduce me to tears by the sheer beauty of the sound. Beauty is not something you can touch, but something ethereal and beyond our reach. However, for me, beauty does not reside in music alone.

A basic truth

Despite all the debate and the anguish, the revelations and the confessions, the assertive women and the new men, many women are now reluctantly being forced to draw the same conclusion: the chips are still stacked against women, and men haven't changed. Even this week a report appeared confirming what many of us have known for some time, which is that women earn a lot less than men in the course of their working lives. In fact, the women who lose out the most are the intelligent ones with a bunch of GCSE passes but without a degree. They earn around a quarter of a million pounds a year less in their working lives then men doing the same job. At a more personal relationship level, men continue to want to control and lead. They are happy to make the odd gesture with the house or the children, but fundamentally they want the women to take responsibility for the time honoured home-based tasks while they continue to go out and earn the major income. It gives them a sense of worth and a meaning to their lives, poor things. It's quite a basic truth really; how many women have you see on the front of a Yamaha 850 with a man clinging on behind? They might do it once, for a laugh, but at the end of the day, the man wants to be sitting up front with the controls in his hands. Some people say that women who can't see this are battling against a fundamental truth of evolution. However, despite the prevalence of these attitudes, change is on the way.

Marangu

When I first visited Marangu in 1977, it was a small, sleepy village about 3, 000 ft up the side of Mount Kilimanjaro. A narrow road wound up from the valley floor, passing through maize fields, then banana plantations, then banana and coffee plantations and finally a mixture of eucalyptus trees and pine trees mixed in with the bananas and coffee. It was cool and lovely. Despite the fact that the village itself was small, there were two hotels and a training college. The hotels were there because Marangu was the starting point for most of the tourists who wanted to climb the mountain. The college was there because the region had maintained a tradition of education for over a 100 years or more and the college was merely one reflection of that fact. Today, in many ways, Marangu has changed very little, although changes have certainly taken place. The road has been rebuilt and now it's wider and the traffic travels up and down faster and more dangerously than it should. There are more houses too, some of the small and simple and some of them inappropriately grandiose. The hotels are still there, unchanged apart from rewiring and repainting. The college is completely unchanged in almost every respect, and even some of the same staff members are still teaching there. One has been there since 1965 after completing his teacher training in the college. It's a beautiful college and I can still stand on the steps at the back of the main building and, on a good day, see the snow covered peak of Kilimanjaro. It brings back some striking memories.

Signposting

'Signposts' are found in good academic essays and they will also help the reader to understand the writing more easily. They help to link what has already been said with what is about to be discussed.

Some of the words that we have already considered can be used as signposts. For example consequently, however, similarly, moreover, in contrast and so on. Look at the example above; the signpost words are shown in bold. In addition to these words, we can also use expressions like these:

· This programme...

· Despite these difficulties...

· These suggestions...

· However, in the modern world...

· In the next section, ...

In each case we are making reference to a point already mentioned, or we are indicating that we about to consider something new. For example, our signposts can look backwards at a point already raised:

· This suggestion...

· These ideas...

· This brief outline suggests...

· Such proposals...

Similarly, our signposts can look forwards towards issues that will be raised in the next section or in the near future:

· In this section, I will...

· My next chapter will consider why...

· A recent study suggests...

· One important recent finding indicates that...

· Some signposts look in both directions at the same time!

· Despite these reports, other writers have proposed...

· In spite of these findings, teachers believe...

· This view has been rejected by some authors who claim that...

· In contrast, a recent article...

Task

Quoting and referencing

There are two main reasons why we use source material in our writing:

· to support a particular point that we have just made in the body of the essay or dissertation

· to indicate to the reader that we have read and understood the literature that is relevant to the particular topic.

We quote from a particular source when we use the original words from a text without any changes.

Quoting is different from summarising or paraphrasing because we use the writer's actual words. There are a number of rules that we need to be aware of when we are quoting directly.

· It is very important to ensure that the quote is correctly given; providing a mis-quotation in your essay would indicate a serious level of carelessness.

· The quotation must be relevant to the argument that you are making.

· The quotation should support a point that you have just made.

· The quote must be integrated grammatically into your own writing.

· Where the quotation is short (for example, less than one line) you can continue on the same line, enclosing the quotation in single quotation marks, and of course, providing the reference.

· If the quotation is more than one line, start a new line and indent the whole quotation. Do not forget the reference.

· Do not use quotation marks where the passage is indented.

· At times, you will not want to quote the whole passage and where you wish to omit part of it, type three or four dots to indicate that a section has been deliberately omitted because it is unnecessary.

Here are several examples of how to quote in an essay.

Example 1

...and recent research has indicated that '...teachers in both primary and secondary schools are finding it increasingly difficult to teach effectively...' (Kimble 2005 p.46) and the reasons given focus in particular on the amount of administrative work that they are obliged to carry out.

Note the fact that the quote becomes an integral part of the sentence. The quote is surrounded by single inverted commas to help to make it stand out. Because the quote is only part of the original sentence, the writer puts three dots at the start and end of the quotation.

Example 2

Some writers question the current approach to meeting and communicating with members of the opposite sex.

Chatting on the Internet seems to be accepted as normal today, just like chatting to a girl on a street corner fifty years ago; but is it the same? Evidence suggests that they are different in fundamental ways. (Mathews, Jones and Smith 2000)

Note that only longer pieces of text are laid out in this way. The quoted passage is indented. It's important to note that the text does not have inverted commas around it unlike when a short quote is integrated within a sentence.

However, we do not always want to quote directly and so we may wish to comment on others' writing without actually using their words.

Example 3

Many writers are already asking questions about the environment in which we bring up our children (Harold 2000; Yeshim 2001; Timms 2002).

Note that the reference is the year and date only without a page reference in this case because we are referring to a general view put over by these writers and we are not referring to a specific page. Note also that the reference is integrated within the sentence and the only full stop comes after the reference.

With direct quotes, grammatical integration into the text is particularly important. Look at these examples and decide if there is anything wrong with them.

· As Smith has noted 'Foreign direct investment in China have had a significant impact on the whole economy' (1987: 54).

· Smith (1987: 78) defines foreign direct investment as 'Foreign direct investment is the inflow of capital from external sources.'

· Some writers have expressed their concern. Smith (187: 109) expressed his concerning when he claimed that 'and my concern is that excessive levels of inward direct investment can adversely impact on the economy.'

· Kilburn has defined innocence as 'Innocence is the child in all of us.' (Kilburn, 1987: 56)

· As Blair (Blair, 1997: 109) writes that the origins of the Labour Party lie in the history of exploitation.

· Emmit notes (Emmit, 1999: 91) that road safety is not negotiable and 'road safety is not negotiable because people's lives matter more than speed.'

 

References in an academic essay usually consist of the author's last name, the year of publication and the page number. Like this:

In a recent article Jones (1989: 126) stated that...

or:

In a recent article, one writer (Jones 1989: 126) argued that...

or:

Jones claims that the agreement is unworkable (Jones 1989: 126).

or:

Jones has described the proposition as 'unworkable and unacceptable' (1989: 126).

 

Notice the single quotation marks around the original words used. Notice also the position of the full-stop when we have the reference at the very end of the sentence. The reference is enclosed within the boundary of the sentence.

As noted before, where a longer passage is quoted within a paragraph, then this is inset and the author's name is placed at the end of the quotation. Like this:

There is little doubt that this is an unworkable and unacceptable solution to the problem. Further research must be conducted before a solution can be found. (Jones 1989: 126)

As noted before, there are no quotation marks around the excerpt when it is inset in this way.

Another point to remember is that where several authors have written one book or article, and the first named author is a man, you should not refer to he when you mean they. If the authors are John Benson and Mary Jones, it would be incorrect to refer throughout the essay to whatBenson said or what he discovered. It would be more appropriate to talk about what the writershave stated, or what they had noted.

 

Parallelism & consistency

Look at the examples below. Do any changes need to be made in these examples? When you have made any changes you want to make, look at the end of this section and check the answers.

· Simon is one of the most intelligent people that I know with a quick mind and he has a good memory as well.

· Tanzania is one of the most beautiful countries in the world with high mountains and it has large game parks too.

· Writing essays is not easy because it takes time and care and careful thinking.

· She enjoys scuba diving, sailing, wind surfing and she likes tennis sometimes.

· In some universities the facilities are excellent with good libraries and the sports facilities are good.

· The college has an excellent lending library and the reference library is good, so students have all the resources they need.

· Birmingham is the second largest city in the UK and it's got a larger area of public parkland than any other city.

· Their team was second in the relay race but overall they came in at number three in the competition.

 

Here is part of an advertisement placed in a newspaper. Read it, and decide how the details of the post can be changed so that the advertisement is more professional in terms of style and clarity.

WANTED a new Chief Executive!

Our college is looking for a new Chief Executive to lead it through the first ten years of the new century. The college has a wide range of exciting courses and we have 1, 600 students from over 50 different countries.

Details of the post:

· The Chief Executive will advise the College Board on strategy, policy formulation and implementation.

· To consult, advise, persuade and encourage a complex organisation of independent and publicly financed colleges to work as a cohesive market force.

· A high profile academic role relevant to the changing needs of the national and international educational markets.

The right candidate will have...

The style is awkward and unprofessional and this makes the advertisement difficult to read. It would be improved if all three requirements in the advertisement followed the same pattern. For example, with the use of initial verbs:

The Chief Executive will:

· advise the College Board on strategy, policy formulation and implementation.

· consult, advise, persuade and encourage a complex organisation of independent and publicly financed colleges to work as a cohesive market force.

· hold a high profile academic role relevant to the changing needs of the national and international educational markets

 

Laying out your page

Look at these two pages of text. Which do you think looks better?

1.An idiom is an expression whose meaning cannot easily be worked out from the words it contains. For example, the expression:

to let the cat out of the bag has nothing to do with cats and bags in the usual sense of those words.

It is an idiom, meaning 'to reveal a secret'. Idioms have the potential to ause foreign learners some difficulty.

If you say to a native speaker after visiting a place for the first time 'How did you find Stratford? ' you might get the response 'Great! ' or 'I didn't like it.' But if you ask a non-native speaker the same question the response might be blank puzzlement.

'How did I find Stratford? Well, the train took me there.' The confusion occurs because here, find is being used in an idiomatic way.'

2. An idiom is an expression whose meaning cannot easily be worked out from the words it contains.

For example, the expression to let the cat out of the bag has nothing to do with cats and bags in the usual sense of those words. It is an idiom, meaning 'to reveal a secret'. Idioms have the potential to cause foreign learners some difficulty. If you say to a native speaker after visiting a place for the first time 'How did you find Stratford? ' you might get the response 'Great! ' or 'I didn't like it.

But if you ask a non-native speaker the same question, the response might be blank puzzlement. 'How did I find Stratford? Well, the train took me there.' The confusion occurs because here, find is being used in an idiomatic way.

Most people would agree that the second text is presented in a neater and more appropriate way. Remember that academic essays are formal pieces of writing and they should be presented in a formal style.

Here are some recommendations:

· Use A4 paper (or whatever is the standard size in your part of the world).

· Provide a top cover to your essay with the title centred about one-third of the way down and your own name centred about six lines below.

· If you do not provide a front cover, place the title of your essay near the top of the first page and centre it. You may use a bold font or you may underline it, but don't do both. Your name should be above and to the right of the essay title.

· Leave a margin of not less than 3cm at the sides and top and about 5cm at the bottom for the markers comments.

· Leave at least 3 empty lines before you start the first line of your essay.

· Use a font size that is neither too large nor too small; 11point or 12point are normally suitable.

· Arrange your lines so that they have one and a half spacing; some departments will request double spacing.

· Fully justify the page so that you get straight lines of print on both sides.

· Separate each paragraph with an extra empty line.

· Do not accidentally leave extra spaces between any of the words.

· Number your pages using arabic numerals, 1, 2, 3, etc.

· Do not number your points or paragraphs, or give a heading to the paragraphs unless this was specifically requested by the course lecturer.

· Left justify your bibliography; leave an empty line between each of the items in the list.

 

Essay titles

Writing an academic essay can be divided into seven main stages:

· understanding what the title is asking you to do

· reading around the subject and making notes

· brainstorming; collecting ideas

· planning

· writing your first draft

· revising your writing

· completing the final draft, and handing it in!

 

There are a number of verbs that often appear in essay titles; the list of verbs below are particularly common:

· Analyse: investigate, consider in detail

· Compare: look at the similarities and differences

· Contrast: consider the differences between two things or ideas

· Criticise: outline the theory or situation and then state how you approve or disapprove; you can bring in other's views too perhaps to support your argument

· Define: state clearly and logically the meaning of a word or phrase

· Delineate: give a broad outline of an idea or theory without going into great detail

· Describe: give an account of events, or experiments, findings or theories etc.

· Differentiate: distinguish between two events or theories

· Enumerate: list down the main points, features, factors

· Evaluate: outline the theory or main ideas and then state how you approve or disapprove; you can bring in other's views

· Examine: look into a theory, a period of history, experimental results etc. in detail

· Explain: give reasons how or why something happened and provide an interpretation

· Explore: examine a theory or event (or series of events) very thoroughly, providing an explanation

· Illustrate: use examples to justify your argument

· Interpret: describe a series of events and provide an explanation

· Justify: give reasons/evidence in support for your argument

· Outline: cover the main points briefly; do not go into detail

· Relate: show how things are related to each other and in what ways they are similar or different

· Review: give an account that includes the main points but not necessarily all the detail; give differing points of view

· State: present a theory or set of beliefs in a clear way

· Summarise: cover all of the main points but not all of the detail.

· Trace: follow the stages in the development of a theory or of historical events from the past

 

Drafting and Revising

Some students tempt fate by starting to think about the essay that has to be in on Monday, sometime around Friday evening. Apart from the occasional genius amongst us, for most students, this is an open ticket to disaster. There has to be time for thought and there has to be time for planning, and once the writing starts, there has to be time for re-drafting and revising your material.

The process of revision takes three main forms:

· re-reading (many times)

· reflecting (a lot)

· revising (heaps)

The most important point here is that reviewing and revising is not a one-off activity. It is a process that could take place 5, 10 or even 20 times before you hand in your final essay. Every time you look through your essay ask yourself:

· Have I said exactly what I want to say?

· Have I said it clearly?

· Is there any ambiguity?

· Do my paragraphs address one particular point?

· Is there a topic sentence for each paragraph?

· Is it grammatically correct?

· Are there any spelling mistakes?

 

Three Suggestions

1. You will spot difficulties on a printed page of writing that you would not spot on the computer screen, so always print off a draft and check it through before you hand in the final draft.

2. A very effective way to check your writing is also to read it to yourself aloud. This might appear a rather odd suggestion, but in reality you will be able to pinpoint difficulties within your text much more easily by reading it aloud. This is a particularly effective way of checking your grammar as well as the overall flow of your argument.

3. Show your work to a friend and let him/her read it through. Your friend may or may not be doing the same course as you, but even if they are not their reading may pick out some difficulties with your text that you had not noticed.

Make sure you have signalled clearly what you are doing using introductory words and expressions like these:

· Firstly,... Secondly,... Finally,...

· At first,... Later,...

· There are four reasons why...

· Research studies suggest that the impact of global warming will have an impact in three main areas. Firstly, ...

Use verbs that reflect a quiet confidence in what you are saying, while also leaving open the possibility for debate:

· The research suggests...

· The evidence indicates...

· The data reflect...

· The findings support...

Do not overstate your case by using expressions like this:

· It's obvious that...

· It's clear that...

· The evidence proves...

· Anybody can clearly see that...

 

Use a variety of ways to refer to other's writing:

o As Smith (1997) points out...

o Research by Mohammed and Ali indicate that...

o Johns and Gully found that...

o In her study of Marx, Suleiman claims that...

o McChlery notes that in addition to...

o Her study provides an excellent...

o The study conducted by Able and Tomlinson had similar findings and..

o Rashid argues that...

o Jacob identifies two reasons why...

o Chande asserts that...

o According to Berstein...

o Fable and Heshim state that...

o Fairbrother contends that...

o A recent study (Opel 1999) maintains that...

o Kanji's research findings confirm...

o As can be seen from the table...

o The discoveries clearly illustrate...

o His research suggests...

o Their research indicates...

o Their analysis reveals...

o The results of the study support the hypothesis that...

o The findings clearly establish a link between...

Avoid less objective expressions, where your attitude to the writer's ideas can be felt through your use of verb forms that have a subjective element:

o White alleges...

o Lema assumes...

o Juma presumes that...

o Axel claims that...

o Innocent implies that...

 

A final note with regard to your spell checker: use it, but don't trust it! Some writers are just too trusting:

I have a spelling checker

It came with my PC.

It plainly marks four my revue

Mistakes I cannot sea.

I've run this poem threw it,

I'm sure your pleased to no.

Its letter perfect in it's weigh,

My checker tolled me sew.

(Anon)

Non-sexist academic writing

Basically, it's using language in a way that suggests that, for example, that one sex is more important than another, or that particular occupations are better suited to one sex or the other. For example:

· using he when you are referring to an individual who could equally well be a she

· referring to a policeman when police officer would be more appropriate

· using expressions like the pilot, he……

· similarly, the nurse, she ……

· using mother instead of parent

· suggesting in any way that certain jobs (salaried or otherwise) might be more suitable for one particular sex

· indicating in any way that men are the main breadwinners in the family

· referring to a particular sex where a book or article has been written by several authors, and where, for example, the first one is a man and your writing refers to he when in fact you should say they or the authors or the research team.

 

Task

Find alternatives for the sexist expressions in these sentences:

· A researcher in this area is likely to experience difficulties and he may meet resistance.

· It is clear that businessmen have to address the issue of computer crime far more seriously.

· The authoress arrived on time for the presentation.

· There is no doubt that men and women, as well as boys and girls, found the experience of travelling in Japan to be highly educational.

· I now pronounce you man and wife!

· The woman told the researcher that she had five girls working in the typing pool and three men in the store-room.

· As Tickling (1998) has shown, Man was far better equipped to cope with the extremes of temperature than was first thought.

· A recent economic survey (Openheimer, 1999) indicated that housewives responded far more rapidly than expected to price changes.

· With the recent fall in prices and the rapid technological developments, a consumer is more likely to change his computer within three years.

· The Kariba Dam is one of the largest man-made structures in Africa.

 

 

Your bibliography

All the books that you have referenced in your essay, together with other books, articles and journals that you have referenced, will be listed at the very end of your essay. They should be arranged alphabetically according to the family name of the author so that the reader can find them easily.

The titles must be presented in a formal way and there are two main styles which institutions use for this purpose. It is best to check with your lecturers to find out which system your college would like you to adopt. It doesn't matter which system is used as long as you follow it faithfully.

 

The Harvard System

This system lays out the details in this way:

name (+ initials) + date + title (in italics) + city + publisher

McChlery, J.P.S. (1998). Foreign Direct Investment in China 1990-1995. Oxford, OUP.

If you want to name only one particular article or chapter, the arrangement changes slightly, with the chapter or article being within commas. The book title remains in italics.

Liu, X. (1999). 'Trading Patterns in China', in Economic Modelling. London. Heinemann.

If it is an article in a journal:

Liu, X. and Simmonds P. (1999) 'Investing in China', China Today, Vol. 17, No. 6, pp.25 - 31.

It is important to get the layout absolutely correct because some markers can be very fussy when it comes to issues like this, so play safe and follow the pattern recommended by your own school, college, university, or publisher very carefully.

 

The British Standard System

The details are the same but the arrangement is slightly different, with the date coming at the end.

name (+ initials) + title (in italics) + city + publisher + date

Watling, M. South of the Sahara. Oxford: Heinemann, 1996.

The same pattern is followed for journals:

Smith, P. and Jones, B. 'Luna Landing Craft' Aeronautics 2000, Vol. 69, No. 2 (1999), pp.46-67.

 

Plagiarism

It is most important for you to be very careful to avoid plagiarism in your writing. What exactly is plagiarism? Basically, it is passing off someone else's writing as your own. It means taking someone else's words and pretending that they are your own. In its most serious form, it is simply copying someone else's work, word for word, and not acknowledging the source that they came from.

 

The most important thing is always to quote and reference correctly and then you will avoid problems of plagiarism. But if you need to mention someone else's work and you can't find or don't want to provide a quotation, how can you do it? The best approach might be to follow these steps:

· read and understand the original text

· close the book and write out the main points in your own words

· rephrase the main points into your own passage

· compare your writing with the original and make sure that no sentences or long phrases are the same

· don't worry if the quality of the writing is not quite as high as the original….it's much more important that you use your own words.

Remember, if you acknowledge someone else's writing, it will not be plagiarism.

Remember as well, that without trying to put ideas into your own words, you will never develop your own style and never gain in confidence as far as your writing goes. Stitching a few ideas together from someone else's writing does nothing to improve your own writing skills and nothing for your understanding of the subject.

 

What do you think about these examples? Plagiarism or not?

Sam's essay:

Third, Carl Gardner describes the new 'high-tech' shopping centres how they varied in size and style, spectacularly produced glass atria or glazed barrel-vaults which helps to use the natural light to flood the shops and walkways.

Original:

Though varied in size and style, nearly all centres offer the same basic features. Most importantly, there are spectacularly engineered glass atria or glazed barrel-vaults to flood the shops and walkways with natural light.

( Answer: This could be classified as plagiarism. It is very close to the original. Note the use of phrases from the original: spectacularly produced glass atria or glazed barrel-vaults. )

 

 

Academic writing (for students)

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