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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Pedagogical (traditional) grammarСтр 1 из 11Следующая ⇒
Varieties of grammars. 1) Comparative grammar was important in Europe (19th c.). Also called comparative philology, was originally stimulated by the discovery by Sir William Jones (1786) that Sanskrit was related to Latin, Greek, and German. Is the study of the relationships or correspondences between two or more languages and the techniques used to discover whether the languages have a common ancestor. provides an explanatory basis for how a human being can acquire a first language. The theory of grammar is a theory of human language and hence establishes the relationship among all languages.
— It assumed a view of linguistic change as large, systematic and lawful and on the basis of this assumption attempted to explain the relationship between languages in terms of a common ancestor often a historical one for which there was no actual evidence in the historical record. 2) Generative grammar arguably originates in the work of Noam Chomsky, beginning in the late 1950s. refers to a particular approach to the study of syntax. attempts to give a set of rules that will correctly predict which combinations of words will form grammatical sentences. GG rules function as an algorithm to predict grammaticality as a discrete (yes-or-no) result. 3) Mental grammar The generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to produce language that other speakers can understand, the innate basis for learning, speaking and understanding any (verbal) language."All humans are born with the capacity for constructing a Mental Grammar, given linguistic experience; this capacity for language is called the Language Faculty (Chomsky) Pedagogical (traditional) grammar 5) Performance grammar aims not only at describing and explaining intuitive judgments and other data concerning the well-formedness of sentences of a language as they are actually used by speakers in dialogues. Reference grammar 7) Theoretical grammar An approach that goes beyond the study of individual languages, to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis, and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals Unlike school grammar, theoretical grammar does not always produce a ready-made decision. In language there are a number of phenomena interpreted differently by different linguists 8) Transformational grammar Models of Tras. G Standard Theory (1957–1965) 9) Universal grammar Morphological categories of English nouns; the problematic status of gender Morphological features of the noun. In accordance with the morphological structure of the stems all nouns can be classified into: simple, derived (stem +affix, affix + stem – thingness); compound (stem+ stem – armchair ) and composite (the Hague). The noun has morphological categories of number and case. Some scholars admit the existence of the category of gender. Gender. In Indo-European languages the category of gender is presented with flexions. It is not based on sex distinction, but it is purely grammatical. According to some language analysts (B.Ilyish, F.Palmer, and E.Morokhovskaya), nouns have no category of gender in Modern English. Prof. Ilyish states that not a single word in Modern English shows any peculiarities in its morphology due to its denoting male or female being. Thus, the words husband and wife do not show any difference in their forms due to peculiarities of their lexical meaning. The difference between such nouns as actor and actress is a purely lexical one. Gender distinctions in English are marked for a limited number of nouns. In present-day English there are some morphemes which present differences between masculine and feminine (waiter – waitress, widow – widower). This distinction is not grammatically universal. Only a limited number of words are marked as belonging to masculine, feminine or neuter. The morpheme on which the distinction between masculine and feminine is based in English is a word- building morpheme, not form-building. Still, other scholars (M.Blokh, John Lyons) admit the existence of the category of gender. Prof. Blokh states that the existence of the category of gender in Modern English can be proved by the correlation of nouns with personal pronouns of the third person (he, she, it). Accordingly, there are three genders in English: the neuter (non-person) gender, the masculine gender, the feminine gender. Functions of the pronouns a) The deictic and anaphoric function of the pronoun
b) Syntactic peculiarities of the pronouns (a closed class system) Grammatical Categories Theory of three ranks. O. Jespersens theory of three ranks provides logical foundations• for identifying the hierarchy of syntactic relations between elements• joined together in a grammatical unit. With all this, O. Jespersens analysis contains some disputable• points and inconsistency.• The very definition of the notion of rank is not accurate which in• some cases leads to inadequacy of analysis Notional § Have full nominative value § Comprise an open class of words (Semi)functional § Have partial nominative value § Comprise a close class of words NOTIONAL VERBS 1) ACTIONAL -Denote the action of the active doer Physical -to write, to fight, to help Mental -To calculate, to compare Perceptual- To look, to listen, to smell 2) STATAL -Denote the action of the inactive experiencer Physical- to ripen, to deteriorate Mental - to understand, to forget Perceptual - to see, to hear, to smell The aspect features of verbal semantics: · durative / continual : continue, linger, last, live, exist · Iterative / repeated: reconsider, return · terminate / concluded: terminate, finish, end, close · interminate / non-concluded: live, study, think · instantaneous / momentary: burst, click, drop, fall · ingressive / starting: begin, start, resume · supercompleted : outgun, oversimplify · undercompleted: underestimate, undersleep The combinatory potential of the verb: · Transitive verbs take a prepositionless complement (the direct object) · Objective verbs combine both with the subject and the object · Intransitive verbs usually cannot take the direct object · Subjective verbs are connected to the subject only (SEMI)FUNCTIONAL VERBS -AUXILIARIES - build analytical forms of the notional verbs -MODALS - denote subject attitudes to the action -VERBID INTRODUCERS - introduce non-finite forms of the verb into the structure of the sentence -COPULAS - connect the nominative part of the predicate to the subject English verbal tense forms: 4 verbal tense forms: the present, the past , the future, and the future-in-the-past . The future tense forms: § Express relative time – posteriority in relation to either the present or the past: § 1) as an after-event in relation to the present: He will work tomorrow (not right now) § 2) as an after-event in relation to the past: He said he would work the next day. Status of shall / will, should / would: O. Jespersen and L.S. Barkhudarov, state that shall/will, should/ would are modals denoting intention, command, request, promise, etc. in a weakened form, e.g.: I’ll go there by train. = I intend (want, plan) to go there by train. On this basis they deny the existence of the verbal future tense in English. Etymology of shall / will § Etymologically they are the verbs of obligation (shall) and volition (will). § shall/will and should/would are in their immediate etymology modal verbs. Abraham Lincoln: ‘I will never be old enough to speak without embarrassment when I have nothing to say’ .
PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS can be of three types: semantic, formal and functional. Semantic PR are based on the similarity of meaning: Goods to be delivered = goods for delivering. The days are getting longer and longer – The days are growing longer and longer. Formal PR are based on the similarity of forms (exist between the members of a paradigm): mouse – mice; ask – asked – will ask – is asking. Functional PR are based on the similarity of function. (established between the elements occuring in the same position). Det: a, the, this, his, Ann’s, some, each, etc. Syntagmatic (horizontal) axis ž Main types of syntagms types of notional syntagms: - Predicative (the combination of subject and predicate) SV: We live, The sun is shining - Objective (VO): Buy clothes; meet friends - Attributive (AttributeN): old houses; nice thought - Adverbial (notional word (V,Adj, Adv) + Adv. modifier): very well (Adv+Adv); simply the best (Adv+Adj)
MEMBERS OF OPPOSITION ž “Marked”, “strong”, or “positive” (symbol +) member of the opposition is characterized by the presence of the differential feature. Eg: girls ž “Unmarked”, “weak”, or “negative” (symbol -). member of the opposition is characterized by the absence of the differential feature. Eg: girl . Types of oppositions ž Privative ž gradual ž equipollent ž Binary (2 members) ž Ternary (3 members) ž Quaternary (4 members) Privativeopposition members of the opposition are characterized by the presence/absence of a certain differential feature, which serves as the formal mark of one of its members Gradual opposition is formed by a series of members which are distinguished not by the presence or absence of a differential feature, but by the degree of it, cf.: big – bigger - biggest Equipollent opposition is formed by members, which are distinguished by a number of their own features, eg suppletive forms: one - first, go – went; correlation of the person and number forms of the verb be: am – are – is (was – were). In various contextual conditions, one member of an opposition can be used in the position of the other, counter-member ("oppositional reduction" or "oppositional substitution“).
INDEPENDENT Of the same class with coordinative conjunction: nice and good joined asyndetically: men, women, children Belonging to different classes: interdependent with primary predication: she smiles DEPENDENT of the same class accumulative connection wise old man Belonging to different classes: accumulative connection his old friend Interdependent secondary predication: her eyes searching his face Types of Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words (within a sentence) without both subject and verb. For example, He is laughing at the joker. A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The function of a phrase depends on its construction (words it contains). On the basis of their functions and constructions, phrases are divided into various types i.e. noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, adjective phrase, appositive phrase, infinite phrase, participle phrase and gerund phrase. Noun Phrase A noun phrase consists of a noun and other related words (usually modifiers and determiners) which modify the noun. It functions like a noun in a sentence. A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as a noun in a sentence. Examples. A sentence can also contain more noun phrases. Prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, object of preposition(noun or pronoun) and may also consist of other modifiers. A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun. Whatever prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. A prepositional phrase functions as an adjective or adverb in a sentence. Examples. Adjective Phrase. An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It consists of adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun. Examples. Prepositional phrases and participle phrases also function as adjectives so we can also call them adjective phrases when they function as adjective. In the above sentence “The girlwith brown hair is singing a song”, the phrase “with brown hair” is a prepositional phrase but it functions as an adjective. Adverb Phrase An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It consists of adverbs or other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that make a group with works like an adverb in a sentence. Examples A prepositional phrase can also act as an adverb phrase. For example in above sentence “He always behaves in a good manner”, the phrase “in a good manner” is a prepositional phrase but it acts as adverb phrase here. Verb Phrase A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence. Examples. According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can consist of main verb, its auxiliaries, its complements and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole predicate of a sentence. Infinitive Phrase An infinitive phrase consist of an infinitive(to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other words associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always functions as an adjective, adverb or a noun in a sentence. Examples. Gerund Phrase A gerund phrase consists of a gerund(verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with the gerund. A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence. Examples Participle Phrase A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb ending in -ed or other form in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associate words. A participle phrase is separated by commas. It always acts as an adjective in a sentence. Examples Absolute Phrase Absolute phrase (also called nominative phrase) is a group of words including a noun or pronoun and a participle as well as any associated modifiers. Absolute phrase modifies (give information about) the entire sentence. It resembles a clause but it lack a true finite verb. It is separated by a comma or pairs of commas from the rest sentence. Examples
Types of the noun phrase NP: N – John, clouds Det N – a house, a girl, these ideas, my sons A N – nice guys, lovely weather Det AN – an interesting book, this old car Det N PP – the date of arrival, the teachers from France Types of the verb phrase VP: V speak, goes, understood Aux V has spoken, is going, will understand VNP: meet his friend, join him VPP PP: assemble in the hall after lunch Types of adjective phrase AP Deg A: rather talented [Deg rather [A talented]] Deg A PP: quite independent of any considerations 35. Compound sentences. Types of connections ((a)syndetic) A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. Clauses that are parts of a compound sentence are called coordinate, as they are joined by coordination. Coordinate clauses may be linked together with or without a connector; in the first case they are joined syndetically. Yesterday I bought a penny fiddle And put it to my chin to play, But I found its strings painted, So I threw my fiddle away. in the second, case - asyndeticaily: Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall, Humpty Dumpty had a great fall; All the king's horses, and all the king's men Cannot put Humpty Dumpty together again. Syndetic coordination is realized with a number of connectors - conjunctions, such as and, but, or, nor, for, etc., or with conjunctive adverbs, such as moreover, besides, however, yet, still, otherwise, therefore, etc. In writing coordinate clauses may be marked off by a comma, a semicolon, a colon or occasionally a dash. Sometimes they are not separated graphically at all. In speaking they are separated by pauses.
Pragmatic transposition. J.L. Austin claims that many utterances are equivalent to actions. When someone says: “I name this ship”, the utterance creates a new social or psychological reality. Speech acts theory broadly explains these utterances as having three parts or aspects: locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. Locutionary acts are simply the speech acts that have taken place. Illocutionary acts are the real actions which are performed by the utterance, where saying equals doing, as in betting, plighting one’s troth, welcoming and warning. Perlocutionary acts are the effects of the utterance on the listener, who accepts the bet or pledge of marriage, is welcomed or warned. Some linguists have attempted to classify illocutionary acts into a number of categories or types. David Crystal, quoting J.R. Searle, gives five such categories: representatives, directives, commissives, expressives and declarations. Representatives – here the speaker asserts a proposition to be true, using such verbs as: affirm, believe, conclude, deny, report. Directives– here the speaker tries to make the hearer do something, with such words as: ask, beg, challenge, command, dare, invite, insist, request. Commissives– here the speaker commits himself (or herself) to a (future) course of action, with verbs such as: guarantee, pledge, promise, swear, vow, undertake. Expressives– the speaker expresses an attitude to or about a state of affairs, using such verbs as:apologize, appreciate, congratulate, deplore, detest, regret, thank, welcome. Declarations– the speaker alters the external status or condition of an object or situation, solely by making the utterance: I now pronounce you man and wife, I sentence you to be hanged by the neck until you be dead, I name this ship...
Ellipsis — happens when, after a more specific mention, words are omitted when the phrase needs to be repeated. — A conversational example: (A) What are you doing tonight? (B) Nothing special (i.e. I am doing nothing special tonight) Substitution — A word is not omitted, as in ellipsis, but is substituted for another, more general word. — E.g. "Which dress would you put on?" – "I would put on the red one" where "one" is used instead of repeating “dress" This works in a similar way to pronouns, which replace the noun. The three types of substitution — Nominal : one, ones, same E.g: I’ll take this one. — Verbal : do E.g: He writes poems, he really does — Clausal : so, not Eg: It’s going to rain. I think so. 4) Lexical cohesion is a linguistic device which helps to create unity of text and discourse. In contrast to grammatical cohesion, lexical cohesion “[…] is the cohesive effect achieved by the selection of vocabulary.” (Halliday 1994). Thus, a speaker or writer’s either conscious or unconscious selection of certain lexical items that are in some way connected to each other creates lexical cohesion. Lexical cohesion includes: 1) repetition, 2) synonymy a) antonymy, b) hyponymy 3) collocation Grammatical cohesion — The logical and structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology and syntax, often complemented by phonetics, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics. NB! Grammatical and lexical cohesion overlap The conjunction is the border line between the two types Frame discourse analysis. — is a form of analysis drawn from GOFFMAN (1986), who adopted the concept of frame originally formulated by BATESON in order to extend upon and integrate the notions of façade, performance, frontstage / backstage, role and role-distance (HERRERA & SORIANO, 2004). Varieties of grammars. 1) Comparative grammar was important in Europe (19th c.). Also called comparative philology, was originally stimulated by the discovery by Sir William Jones (1786) that Sanskrit was related to Latin, Greek, and German. Is the study of the relationships or correspondences between two or more languages and the techniques used to discover whether the languages have a common ancestor. provides an explanatory basis for how a human being can acquire a first language. The theory of grammar is a theory of human language and hence establishes the relationship among all languages.
— It assumed a view of linguistic change as large, systematic and lawful and on the basis of this assumption attempted to explain the relationship between languages in terms of a common ancestor often a historical one for which there was no actual evidence in the historical record. 2) Generative grammar arguably originates in the work of Noam Chomsky, beginning in the late 1950s. refers to a particular approach to the study of syntax. attempts to give a set of rules that will correctly predict which combinations of words will form grammatical sentences. GG rules function as an algorithm to predict grammaticality as a discrete (yes-or-no) result. 3) Mental grammar The generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to produce language that other speakers can understand, the innate basis for learning, speaking and understanding any (verbal) language."All humans are born with the capacity for constructing a Mental Grammar, given linguistic experience; this capacity for language is called the Language Faculty (Chomsky) Pedagogical (traditional) grammar 5) Performance grammar aims not only at describing and explaining intuitive judgments and other data concerning the well-formedness of sentences of a language as they are actually used by speakers in dialogues. Reference grammar 7) Theoretical grammar An approach that goes beyond the study of individual languages, to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis, and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals Unlike school grammar, theoretical grammar does not always produce a ready-made decision. In language there are a number of phenomena interpreted differently by different linguists 8) Transformational grammar Models of Tras. G Standard Theory (1957–1965) 9) Universal grammar |
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