The mental lexicon in a bilingual

 

Different languages lead to different mental lexicons. The question of great importance is to find out what universal and specific features the mental lexicon of any human being possesses. Bilinguals are of special interest from this point of view.

 

A bilingual is a person who is fluent in two languages. It is estimated that half the population of the world is bilingual.

 

In the mind of a bilingual two language systems coexist at the same time, and many questions concerning the architecture of language ability, such as representation, storage, accessing and processing of the lexicon, should be studied not only in monolinguals but in bilinguals, too.

 

Bilingualism also offers a unique opportunity for examining the relation between language and thought. If language influences thought, then there are grounds to believe that in a bilingual there are two conceptual systems, one corresponding to each language. If language primarily expresses the results of thought processes that are universal for speakers of all languages then we may expect only one conceptual system underlying both languages.

 

Though it is widely accepted that a bilingual has two lexicons, there is no general agreement on how different lexicons are organized in the mind of a bilingual speaker and how they are related to the conceptual system.

 

There are two major theories on lexical representation in the mind of a bilingual:

I. Segregated language models that support the idea of segregated conceptual systems

II. Integrated language models that support the idea of one integrated conceptual system in the mind of a bilingual.

 

On one hand, evidence for the unity of conceptual system but separability of language forms comes from studies of language code switching – a change from one language to another in the same situation or even utterance.

 

But the answer is not as easy as it may seem. Studies of different types of bilingualism give different data on the relation of language and conceptual systems. Bilingualism can be compoundif a child learns two languages simultaneously in one and the same place, and coordinate if a person acquires two languages in distinct contexts separated by a time interval. It is proven that in the case of compound bilingualism, in which a child has only one environment and only one type of experience with the same objects that are called differently, the two related words in different languages have the same affective meaning. But for coordinate-bilingual speakers the correlative words in each language may have different affective meanings. For example, on the semantic differential rating scale (see Chapter 4) the English word bread is thought of as ‘good and weak’, while the German word brot is rated as ‘good and strong’. The difference may be accounted for by different experiences a person may have with the object in different countries and it is possible that conceptual representations of the object in a bilingual’s mind may be different in this case.

 

The ability of a bilingual to keep their languages apart or to mix them at will is one of the most intriguing features that cannot be explained today. This ability, however, may be lost in many aphasic bilingual patients. Some of them may gradually recover all their languages or only one of them.

 

As stated above, little is known about native language acquisition. But the situation with the second language acquisition is even worse. There is no satisfactory theory on language and vocabulary acquisition by bilinguals.

 

Recently a theory has emerged which is based on the Chomskian view that all languages are learned by setting parameters in the special “Language Acquisition Device” wired in our brain, and that second language learning involves just the resetting of some parameters. This view stresses the similarity of both processes.

 

The theory may be correct when the general mechanism of the language faculty is meant, yet, our experience tells us that there are radical differences in learning processes. A child learns the mother tongue vocabulary in a totally different way than he later learns the vocabulary of the second language. The second language is learned on the basis of the native tongue. When adults set out to learn a new language, they realize they will have to learn new phonology, grammar and vocabulary. Learning the vocabulary may seem to be the easiest thing but it turns into a life-long experience. Adult learners expect their teachers to explain the meaning of words to them in their mother tongue and spend years and years to become really fluent in a foreign language.

 

It is well known that one cannot acquire the vocabulary of a foreign language by studying a dictionary list of words. One should know even many more things about words that dictionary can provide and learn them in a different, more efficient way than studying their entries in a dictionary.

 

There is no doubt that further investigation of the structure of the mental lexicon in bilinguals and the ways of its acquisition will lead to the development of a new methodology in second and foreign language teaching.

 

 

Further Reading:

 

Залевская А.А. Вопросы овладения вторым языком в психолингвистическом аспекте. – Тверь, 1996.

Психолингвистические проблемы семантики. – М.: Наука, 1983.

Aitchison, J. Words in the mind: An introduction to the mental lexicon. 2^nd edition. – Oxford: OUP, 1994.

Jackendoff, R. The Architecture of the Language Faculty. – Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1997.

Katamba, Fr. English words. – New York: St.Martin’s Press, 1994.

Miller, G.A., Johnson-Laird, P. N. Language and Perception. – Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1976.

Nelson, K. Individual differences in language development: Implications for development and language // Developmental psychology, 1981, 17, pp.170-187.

Smith, M.C. Accessing the Bilingual Lexicon // Resolving Semantic Ambiguity. Ed. David S.Gorfein. – Springer-Verlag, 1989. – pp.109-125.

The Acquisition of the Lexicon. Ed. by Lila Gleitman and Barbara Landau. – Cambridge, MA; London, England: A Bradford Book, 1994.

Glucksberg, S., Danks, J.H. Experimental psycholinguistics. An Introduction. – Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1975.

Conclusion.In a word: General characteristics of modern English vocabulary

 

“The vocabulary of a language is the measuring-rod of the sum total of the activities of that language’s speakers.”

— M. Pei. The story of the English language, 1967: 124.

 

The most efficient communication between people is verbal. Without words there is no human language. In different speech communities the number of words, their form and meaning, their origin and use is different, and it is this difference in lexicons that alongside specific grammar and phonology that makes the way humans communicate with each other a separate language.

 

Of all the language components lexicon is the most sensitive to man’s social life, its development is influenced by different extralinguistic factors. One of the specific characteristics of the lexicon in modern English is that it is very extensive. Though it is not possible to give the exact amount of lexical units in any language because there is not a complete unanimity what should be considered a lexical unit, and because lexicon is too complex, dynamic and flexible for any accurate calculations, dictionary makers estimate that in English there are somewhere from 450, 000 to 3, 000 000 words.

 

The English language vocabulary development is very dynamic. Many words like mizzle ‘drizzle’, toom ‘empty’ become obsolete and drop out of the system. But still many more words are born. The characteristic feature of the English vocabulary is its steady replenishment.

 

The expansion of vocabulary is especially noticeable in the sphere of terminology. New developments in science and technology brought in usesuch words as television, laser, vinyl, computer, software, diskette, video, modem, to log in, high-tech, on-line, and there is no limit to their potential number.

 

Such recent prefixes like –mini-, maxi-, super-, micro-, mega-, hyper- are very active and highly productive in creating new words: mini-diskette, superchip, micro-surgery, or hypersonic.

 

Minor word-formations like blendings, or portmanteau words(pompetent for ‘pompous but competent’, smust (smoke and dust), sexplosion for ‘sex explosion’, movelist for ‘a writer for the movies’) and analogical word-formations like beef-a-roni; rice-a-roni, noodle-roni after the original macaroni or cheeseburger, fishburger after hamburger have become quite numerous in modern English.

 

A Native American proverb suggests that language changes within a mile. No wonder then that the English language, one of world languages spoken in all the continents by millions of people, exists in a great number of variants and dialects. The existing varieties of English are made first of all by lexical differences, as well as differences in phonetic and grammatical systems.

 

Still another characteristic feature of the English lexicon is its mixed etymological character. A Germanic language, English borrowed up to 70% of its total vocabulary from more than 50 languages of the world. Though not so intensively as during and after the periods of invasion of Great Britain, foreign words still enrich the English lexicon: bé bé, baguette, bouillon [Fr], baba, babushka, borshch [Russ], a capella, bambino [It], charisma [Gk], bonsai, sushi [Jap], caramba, or bosque [Sp]. The majority of them were remodelled and assimilated according to the specific features of the English language system; some of them are still being assimilated. Taking into account the number of words borrowed from French and Latin, English is regarded by some linguists as half-Romance. Classical (i.e. from Latin and Greek) borrowings and neo-classical compounds constitute perhaps the absolute majority of all the words in the language though they are usually not used frequently. Not only words but many affixes came from Latin and Greek with the Renaissance, many of them became very productive and are often used with native roots forming such hybrids as womanize, witticism, etc.

 

Loan words radically changed the structure of the Old English lexicon. They led to numerous etymological doublets, homonyms, created a three-member pattern of stylistically different synonyms neutral ones being traced to Anglo-Saxon roots, literary words coming from French and learned words being borrowed from Latin.

 

However, native, predominantly monosyllabic words of Anglo-Saxon origin are still the most frequently used, polysemantic, communicatively important, and thus remain the core of the lexical system of modern English.

 

Specific characteristics of the English vocabulary are also revealed in all morphological and lexical-semantic aspects of a word.

 

Monomorphism of many words consisting of only roots (love, answer, sail, hate, birth, death, etc.) is one of the most distinctive features of the English vocabulary that was developed in the course of its history.Most of them, both native and loans, are also monosyllables: eye, head, nose, cat, dog, home, bed; air, cost, firm, pay, push, cry, move; die, egg, leg, sky, skirt; disc, pain.

 

These short words naming the most important concepts for human survival and further development possess a tremendous potential for derivation and they act as sources for new names derived by lexical-semantic, morphological and lexical-syntactic means.

 

Their active use in lexical-semantic naming lead to a high degree of polysemy of English words, estimated as one of the highest in the European languages.

 

Like in other Indo-European languages they are the bases for many morphologically derived words by means of affixation, composition, conversion, and other word buildingmeans that finally make up the majority of word-stock in English.

 

Linguistic and extralinguistic restrictions on long words prevent them from participating in numerous acts of derivation, and the majority of English derived words are the products of the first or the second degree of derivation as it can be seen in the morphological family of the noun hand: handy, handiness, handy-man, handily; handless, handbag, handbarrow, handbook, hand-breadth, hand-cart, handcuff, to handcuff, handful, hand-out, handshake. Derivatives of the third and fourth degree of derivation, like non-environmentalist, are rare in English.

 

High productivity of conversion as well as some other non-affixal ways of word-derivation such as shortening, back-formation, transposition, and some others, make many English derived words remain monomorphic (to knife, a fan, to edit, the rich).

 

Compounding is one of the most important types of word-formation in English. Within the system of English compounds the predominant part is made up of composites without a linking element (snowman, oil-rich, sky-blue). The mere juxtaposition of immediate constituents in English compounds alongside the lack of any other reliable criterion for referring a composite to the class of compounds make it difficult for lexicologists and lexicographers to differentiate among numerous cases of wide use of nouns in attributive function (as alife story, a stone wall). Semantically most important component in English compounds is always the second root.

 

English words are more polysemantic than Russian words and are characterized by a wide lexical and grammatical collocability.

In addition to different restrictions naturally provided by the English language system (cf.: strong tea but powerful argument), some collocations of words, and even some sentences, become more fixed as a result of their frequent use in speech. They change into readily reproduced cliché s and finally become lexicalized alongside with morphemes and words. We are quick to say wrong numberwhen answering some telephone calls, or Good morning! when we greet a friend, we take the bus or walk on foot. In English, as in any other language, there are also, numerous word groups that semantically cannot be reduced to the meanings of their components and are characterized by functional integrity (to break the ice, in the long run, mare’s nest, etc.). Such idiomatic word groups along with words as smaller units and proverbs, sayings or quotations as longer ready-made units, are also part and parcel of the English lexicon.

 

Though lexicon is not any more viewed as a list of irregularities that have to be memorized but a certain system and structure having a generative character, the process of vocabulary acquisition for both first and second language learners is still a long and pains taking process because lexical rules are not rigid. Rather than strict laws they are major tendencies and are limited to particular groups of lexicon.

 

Segmentation of lexicon into lexical-semantic classes of words, ways of concept naming, semantic features chosen for motivation, morphemic, derivational and semantic structures, grammatical and lexical collocations of the correlative words in different languages are to a great extent arbitrary, and it needs a lot of practice to acquire them to avoid lexical-semantic errors in using a language.

 

But theoretical knowledge of a foreign language lexicon structure is a kind of a map that presents the major lines of differences and makes learning more efficient and enjoyable.

References

 

Амосова Н.Н. Этимологические основы словарного состава современного английского языка. – М.: Издательство иностранной литературы, 1958.

Амосова Н.Н. Основы английской фразеологии. – Ленинград: Изд-во Ленинградского университета, 1963.

Апресян Ю.Д. Лексическая семантика: синонимические средства языка. – М.,: Наука, 1974.

Арутюнова Н.Д. Типы языковых значений: Оценка. Событие. Факт. – М.: Наука, 1988.

Вежбицкая А. Семантические универсалии. – М.: Языки русской культуры, 1999.

Вердиева З.Н. Семантические поля в современном английском языке. – М.: Высшая школа, 1986.

Виноградов В.В. Лексикология и лексикография. Избранные труды. – М.: Наука, 1977.

Вольф Е.М. Функциональная семантика оценки. – М.: Наука, 1985.

Заботкина В.И. Новая лексика современного английского языка. – М.: Высшая школа, 1989.

Завражнова С.И. Системное описание лексики. – M.: МГПИ им.В.И. Ленина, 1985.

Залевская А.А. Вопросы овладения вторым языком в психолингвистическом аспекте. – Тверь, 1996.

Каращук П.М. Словообразование английского языка. – М.: Высшая школа, 1977.

Кубрякова Е.С. Что такое словообразование. – M.: Наука, 1965.

Кубрякова Е.С. Основы морфологического анализа. – M.: Наука, 1974.

Кунин А.В. Английская фразеология. – М.: Высшая школа, 1970.

Кунин А.В. Курс фразеологии современного английского языка. – М.: Высшая школа, 1986.

Лещева Л.М. Лексическая полисемия в когнитивном аспекте. – Минск: МГЛУ, 1996.

Литвин Ф.А. Многозначность слова в языке и речи. – М.: Высшая школа, 1984.

Мешков О.Д. Словообразование современного английского языка. – М.: Наука, 1976.

Никитин М.В.Лексическое значение слова. – М.: Высшая школа, 1983.

Никитин М.В. Курс лингвистической семантики. – Санкт-Петербург: Научный центр проблем диалога, 1996.

Нухов С.Ж. Языковая игра в английском словообразовании: имя существительное. – Уфа: Башкирский педагогический институт, 1997.

Полюжин М.М. Диахронно-семантический аспект префиксального словообразова­ния в английском языке. – M.: Институт языкознания РАН, 1992.

Психолингвистические проблемы семантики. – М.: Наука, 1983.

Секирин В.П. Заимствования в английском языке. – Киев: Изд-во Киевского университета, 1964.

Смирницкий А.И. Лексикология английского языка. – M.: Изд-во литературы на иностранных языках, 1956.

Соболева П.М. Словообразовательные отношения по конверсии между глаголом и отглагольным существительным в современном английском языке: Автореф. дис. … канд. филол. наук. – М., 1959.

Суша Т.Н. Лингвистические основы лексикографии. – Mинск: МГЛУ, 1999.

Суша Т.Н. Лексикология английского языка. Практикум: Учебно-методическое пособие /На английском языке. – Минск: МГЛУ, 2001.

Ступин Л.П. Словари современного английского языка. – Ленинград: Изд-во Ленинградского университета, 1973.

Телия В.Н. Типы языковых значений. Связанное значение слова в языке. – М.: Наука, 1981.

Труевцева О.Н. Английский язык: особенности номинации. – Ленинград: Наука, Ленинградское отделение, 1986.

Ульман С. Семантические универсалии // Новое в лингвистике. Вып. 5.-М.: Прогресс, 1970. – С.250–299.

Уфимцева А.А. Опыт изучения лексики как системы. – M.: Изд-во АН СССР, 1962.

Харитончик З.А. Проблемы словообразования в современном английском языке. – Минск: МГПИИЯ, 1983.

Харитончик З.А. Имена прилагательные в лексико-грамматической системе современного английского языка. – Мiнск: Вышэйшая школа, 1986.

Харитончик З.A. Лексикология английского языка. – Miнск: Вышэйшая школа, 1992.

Царев П.В. Сложные слова в английском языке: Учебное пособие. – М.: Изд-во Московского университета, 1980.

Шадрин Н.Л. Перевод фразеологических единиц и сопоставительная стилистика. – Саратов: Изд-во Саратовского университета, 1991.

Швейцер А.Д. Социальная дифференциация английского языка в США. – М.: Наука, 1983.

Щерба Л.В. Опыт общей теории лексикографии // Избранные работы акад. Л.В.Щербы. Т.1. – Ленинград: Изд-во Ленинградского университета, 1958.

Языковая номинация. Общие вопросы. – М.: Наука, 1977.

Языковая номинация. Вопросы номинации. – М.: Наука, 1977.

Ярцева В.Н. Развитие национального литературного английского языка. – М.: Наука, 1969.

 

The Acquisition of the Lexicon. Ed. by Lila Gleitman and Barbara Landau. – Cambridge, MA; London, England: A Bradford Book, 1994.

Aitchison, J. Linguistics. – London: Teach Yourself Books, 1992.

Aitchison, J. Words in the mind: An introduction to the mental lexicon, 2^nd edition. – Oxford: OUP, 1994.

Aitchison, J. The seeds of speech: Language origin and evolution. – Cambridge: CUP, 1996.

Allan, K. Linguistic Meaning. – London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986.

Arnold I.V. The English Word. – M.: Высшая школа, 1986.

Antrushina G.B., Afanasyeva O.V., Morozova N.N. English Lexicology. – M.: Дрофа, 1999.

Barber, Ch. The English language: a historical introduction. – Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

Baugh, A.C., Cable, T. A History of the English Language. Third Edition (Revised). – Redwood Burn Limited, Towbridge & Esher, 1978.

Bauer, L. English Word-formation. – Cambridge: CUP, 1983.

Bloomfield, L. Language. – New York, Holt: Rinehart & Winston, 1933.

Bolinger, D.L. and Sears D.A. Aspects of Language. – New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981.

Breal, M. Semantics: Studies in the Science of Meaning. – New York: Dover Publications, 1964.

Burchfield, R. The English Language. – Oxford, New York: OUP, 1985.

Chambers, J.K. Dialectology. – Cambridge: CUP, 1980.

Cruse, D.A. Lexical semantics. Reprinted. – Cambridge: CUP, 1991.

Crystal, D. The Structure of the Lexicon // The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Reprinted. – Cambridge, CUP, 1996.

Flexner, S. B. and Soukhanov, A.H. Speaking Freely: A Guided Tour of American English from Plymouth Rock to Silicon Valley. – New York, Oxford: OUP, 1997.

Freeborn, D., French, P. and Langford, D. Varieties of English. An Introduction to the Study of Language. Second Edition. – Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1993.

Ginzburg R.S., Khidekel S.S., et al. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. – M.: Высшая школа, 1979.

Glucksberg, S., Danks, J.H. Experimental psycholinguistics. An Introduction. – Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1975.

Hayakawa, S.I.Language in Thought and Action. New York, Burlingame: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1964.

Hartmann, R.R.K. (ed.). Lexicography: principles and practice. – London: Academic press, 1983.

Holmes, J. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. – London and New York: Longman, 1994.

Hughes, A. and Trudgill, P. English Accents and Dialects. An Introduction to Social and Regional Varieties of British English. – London: Edward Arnold, 1979.

Hughes, G. Words in time. – Oxford: Basil Blackwell Inc., 1988.

Idioms: structural and psychological perspectives (ed. by Martin Everaert, et al.) – Hillsdale, New Jersey: LEA, 1995.

Jackendoff, R. Semantic Structures. (Third printing). – Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press, 1993.

Jackendoff, R. Semantics and Cognition. – Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1993.

Jackendoff, R. The Architecture of the Language Faculty. – Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1997.

Katamba, F. English words. – New York: St.Martin’s Press, 1994.

Kraske, R. The Story of the Dictionary. – N.-Y.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975.

Labov, W. The Social Stratification of English in New York City. – Arlington, MA, Center for Applied Linguistoics, 1966.

Lipka, L. Outline of English Lexicology: Lexical Structure, Word Semantics and Word-formation. Second Edition. – Verlag, Tubingen: Max Niemeyer, 1992.

Locke, J. Essay Concerning Human Understanding. (Ed. by Peter H.Nidditch). – Oxford: Clarendon Press. Book 3.

Long, David. Sociolinguistic Aspects of Japanese Loan words in English // XVIth International Congress of Linguists. Abstracts. – Paris, 1997. – p.165.

Lyons, J. Structural Semantics. – Oxford: Blackwell, 1963.

Lyons, J. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. – Cambridge: CUP, 1968.

Lyons, J. Semantics, 2 vol. – Cambridge: CUP, 1977.

Lyons, J. Language and Linguistics: An Introduction. – Cambridge: CUP, 1981.

Marchand, H. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-formation. – Mü nchen, 1969.

Marckwardt, A.H. American English. – New York, Oxford: OUP, 1980.

McCrum, R., Cran, W., MacNeil, R. The Story of English. New and Revised Edition. – London, Boston: BBC Books, 1992.

Mel’chuk, I. Phrasemes in Language and Phraseology in Linguistics // Idioms: structural and psychological perspectives. – Hillsdale, New Jersey: LEA..

Miller, G.A., Johnson-Laird, P. N. Language and Perception. – Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1976.

Miller, G.A. The Science of Words. – New York: Scientific American Library, 1991.

Nelson, K. Individual differences in language development: Implications for development and language // Developmental psychology. 1981. 17. Pp.170–187.

Nida, Eu. A. Morphology. The Descriptive Analysis of Words (Second Edition). – Michigan, 1961.

Ogden, C.K.,.Richards, I.A. The Meaning of Meaning. – London, 1923.

O’Donnell, W.R., Todd, L. Variety in Contemporary English. – London: G.Allen & Unwin, 1980.

Palmer, F.R. Semantics: A New Outline. – M.: Vysshaya shkola, 1982.

Pei, M. The story of the English language. – Philadelphia and New York: J.B.Lippincott Co., 1967.

Phraseology. (Ed. by A.P. Cowie). – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.

Pinker, S. Words and Rules. The Ingredients of Language. – New York: Basic Books, 1999.

Posner, M.I. Cognition: An Introduction. – Glenview: Scott Foresman, 1973.

Pustejovsky, J. The Generative Lexicon. – Cambridge, MA; London, England: The MIT Press, 1995.

Quemada, B. Lexicology and Lexicography // Current Trends in Linguistics. – Mouton - The Hague - Paris, 1972, v.9, pp. 395-476.

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik Jan. A Universal Grammar of English. – M.: Vyssaja skola, 1982.

Quirk, R. Grammatical and Lexical Variance in English. – UK: Longman, 1999.

Readings in Modern English Lexicology. – Л.: Просвещение, Ленинградское отделение, 1969.

Smith, M.C. Accessing the Bilingual Lexicon // Resolving Semantic Ambiguity. Ed. David S.Gorfein. – Springer-Verlag, 1989. – pp.109 – 125.

Strevens, P. British and American English. – London: Cassell, Ltd., 1978.

Swadesh, M. The phonemic principle // Language. 1934. V.10. – pp.117 – 129.

Sweet, H. New English Grammar. – London, 1900.

Ullmann, St. Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. – Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1962.

Wardhaugh, R. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. – Oxford: Basic Blackwell Inc, 1986.

Weinreich, U. Lexicology // Current Trends in Linguistics. – The Hague, 1963. V. 1.

Wierzbicka, A. Lexicography and Conceptual Analysis. – Ann Arbor: Karona Publishers, Inc., 1985.

Wierzbicka, A. Semantics: Primes and Universals. – Oxford: OUP, 1996.

Williams, E. and Di Sciullo, A. M. On the Definition of Word. – Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987.

Wittgenstein, L. Philosophical Investigations. – Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1953.

WordNet: An Electronic Lexical Database (Ed. by Christian Fellbaum). – Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1998.

 

 

Linguistic Encyclopedias

 

Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь. – М.: Советская Энциклопедия, 1990.

Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. – Cambridge, New York, Port Chester, Melbourne, Sydney: CUP, 1987.

Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. – Cambridge, CUP, 1996.

The Linguistics Encyclopedia. Edited by Kirsten Malmkjar. – London and New York: Routledge, 1996.

 

 

Dictionaries

Алехина А.И. Краткий русско-английский и англо-русский фразеологический словарь. – Минск: Изд-во БГУ им. В.И. Ленина, 1980.

Англо-русский словарь глагольных словосочетаний (English-Russian Dictionary of Verbal Collocations)/Под редакцией Э.М.Медниковой. – М.: Русский язык, 1986.

Большой англо-русский словарь (Под общим руководством И.Р. Гальперина и Э.М. Медниковой). – М.: Русский язык, 1987.

Кузьмин С.С., Шадрин Н.Л. Русско-английский словарь пословиц и поговорок. – СПб.: МИК/Лань, 1996.

Кунин А.В. Англо-русский фразеологический словарь. – М.: Советская Энциклопедия, 1984.

Словарь иностранных слов. – М.: Русский язык, 1985.

Ожегов С.И. Словарь русского языка. – М.: Русский язык, 1988.

Тышлер И.С. Словарь лексических и лексико-грамматических омонимов современного английского языка. – Саратов: Изд-во Саратовского университета, 1975.

Benson M., Benson E., Ilson R. The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English. – Amsterdam-Philadelphia: John Benjamin Publishing Company, 1986; M.: Русский язык, 1990.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English. Seventh edition. /Ed. by H.W.Fowler and F.G Fowler. – Oxford - Bombey: OUP, 1982.

The New National Dictionary. Reprint. – London and Glasgow: Collins, 1974.

Cowie A.P., Mackin R. Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English. – Oxford: OUP. V.1-2, 1984.

Hornby, A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. – Moscow-Oxford: Русский язык – OUP, 1982

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. – Great Britain: Longman, 1980.

Lubensky, S. Russian – English Dictionary of Idioms. – New York: Random House, 1995.

McArthur, T. Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English. (Reprint).– England: Longman.

The Oxford English Dictionary. A corrected reissue of the New English Dictionary on Historical Principles: In thirteen vols/ Ed. by J.A.H.Murray. H.Bradley, W.A.Craigie, C.T.Onions. 3^rd ed., revised, with corrections. – Oxford, 1977.

Skeat, W.W. A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. – Oxford: OUP, 1955.

Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. A Merriam-Webster. – Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Inc., Publishers,

Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language. – Springfield, Mass., 1961.

Index of Authors

 

Амосова Н.Н., 35, 109

Апресян Ю.Д., 59

Арутюнова Н.Д., 59

Вежбицкая А., 59

Вердиева З.Н., 122

Виноградов В.В., 59, 109

Вольф Е.М., 59

Заботкина В.И., 35

Завражнова С.И., 122

Залевская А.А., 163

Каращук П.М., 95

Кузьмин С.С., 109

Кубрякова Е.С., 95

Кунин А.В., 109, 110

Лещева Л.М., 59

Литвин Ф.А., 59

Медниковa Э.М., 109

Мешков О.Д., 95

Никитин М.В., 59

Нухов С.Ж., 93, 95

Ожегов С.И., 172

Полюжин М.М., 70, 71, 95

Секирин В.П., 35

Смирницкий А.И., 6, 17

Соболева П.М., 79, 95

Ступин Л.П., 153

Суша Т.Н., 6, 17, 144, 153

Телия В.Н., 110

Труевцева О.Н., 25

Тышлер И.С., 56, 59

Ульман С., 23, 25

Уфимцева А.А., 122

Харитончик З.А., 6, 17, 95

Царев П.В., 95

Шадрин Н.Л., 109, 110

Швейцер А.Д., 134

Щерба Л.В., 152, 153

Ярцева В.Н., 134

Aitchison, J., 18, 25, 127,

134, 157, 164

Allan, K., 17, 59

Antrushina, G.B., 6, 17

Afanasyeva, O.V., 6, 17

Barber, Ch., 35

Baugh, A.C., 35

Bauer, L., 95

Benson, E., 102, 149

Benson, M., 102, 149

Bloomfield, L., 12, 36, 61, 63

Bolinger, D.L., 60

Breal, M., 36, 59

Burchfield, R., 139, 153

Cable, T., 35

Chambers, J.K., 134

Cowie, A.P., 97, 106, 108, 110, 149

Cran, W., 35

Cruse, D.A., 59, 122

Crystal, D., 122, 148

Danks, J.H., 164

Di Sciullo, A. M., 12

Fellbaum, Ch., 153

Flexner, S. B., 153, 154

Freeborn, D., 134

Fowler, H.W., 141

French, P., 134

Ginzburg, R.S., 6, 17

Glucksberg, S., 164

Greenbaum, S., 149

Hayakawa, S.I., 9

Hartmann, R.R.K., 153

Holmes, J., 134

Hornby, A.S., 8, 151

Hughes, A., 28, 32, 35, 59, 124, 134

Ilson, R., 102, 110, 144, 149

Jackendoff, R., 12, 19, 25, 38, 59, 96, 155, 164

Johnson-Laird, P.N., 154, 164

Johnson, S., 136-143

Katamba, F., 160, 164

Khidekel, S.S., 6, 17

Kraske, R., 139, 141, 143,

145, 153

Labov, W., 125

Leech, G., 171

Lipka, L., 6, 17

Long, D., 135

Locke, J., 37, 38

Lubensky, S., 109, 110

Lyons, J., 40, 59, 113, 122

Mackin, R., 108, 110

Marchand, H., 70, 78, 95

Marckwardt, A.H., 135

McArthur, T., 8, 151

McCrum, R., 35

Mel’chuk, I., 35

Miller, G.A., 15, 17, 36, 53, 140, 154, 164

Morozova, N.N., 6, 17,

Murray, J.A.H., 140

Nelson, K., 160, 164

Nida, Eu., 171

Ogden, C.K., 36, 149

O’Donnell, W.R., 135

Palmer, F.R., 59

Pei, M., 29, 32, 35, 123, 159, 160, 165

Pinker, S., 12, 17

Posner, M.I, 25

Pustejovsky, J., 118

Quemada, B., 11, 17

Quirk, R., 81, 135

Richards, I.A., 36

Sears, D.A., 60

Skeat, W. W., 34

Smith, M.C., 164

Strevens, P., 135

Soukhanov, A.H., 133, 134

Susha, T.N., 7, 152

Swadesh, M., 39

Sweet, H., 75

Todd, L., 135

Trudgill, P., 125, 134

Ullmann, St., 23, 24, 59

Wardhaugh, R., 135

Webster, N., 141-148

Wierzbicka, A., 38, 59

Williams, E., 12

Wittgenstein, L., 36, 37, 40

Index of Topics

 

abbreviation, 22

ablaut-motivated, 93

accent, 129

Acquisition

vocabulary ~, 154, 160,

~ by bilinguals, 163

acronym, 90

acronymy, 90

adjectivalization, 81

adverbialization, 81

affix, 62

derivational ~, 66

affixation, 69

allomorph, 63

ambiguity, 53

amelioration, 49

American

General ~, 134

Analogy

linguistic ~, 45

Analysis

componential ~, 42

contextual ~, 44

derivational ~, 65

diachronic, 55

morphological ~, 64

synchronic, 55

antonym, 117

complementary ~117

contradictory ~, 117

conversive ~, 118

gradable ~, 117

antonymy, 115

arbitrariness, 55

archaism, 42

Approach

diachronic ~, 11, 55

functional ~, 40,

ideational ~, 37

prototype ~, 43

referential ~, 38

semantic ~, 107

structural ~, 107

synchronic ~, 11, 55

assimilation, 32

back-formation, 91

bahuvrihi, orexocentric compound, 87

Base

derivational ~, 66

bilingual, 162

bilingualism, 162

compound ~, 162

coordinate ~, 162

blends, blending, 90(see alsotelescoping, portmanteau words)

borrowing, 21, 26

complete ~, 21

semantic ~, 30

source of ~, 31

categorization, 18, 23

chains, 94, 118

Change

functional ~76, (seealso conversion)

semantic ~, 44

Charge

emotive ~, 41

cliché, 102

clipping, 90

cockney, 91

co-hyponym, 115

co-meronym, 115

complex, 67

collocation, 102, 116

restricted~ 109

Combinations

phraseological ~, 105

compatibility, 115

complex, 67

component, 47

connotational ~, 44

denotational ~, 42, 47

semantic ~, or seme, 42

composition, orcompounding, 82

~ of scientific terms, 92

compound, 68, 86

~ adjective, 86

~ noun, 86

~ verb, 86

ablaut-motivated ~, 93

asyntactic ~, 88

coordinative ~, or copulative ~, or dvandva, 87

derivational ~, 86

endocentric ~, or subordinative ~, 87

exocentric ~, 87, 105

neoclassical ~, 63

rhyme-motivated ~, 93

syntactic ~, 87

compression, 93

contiguity, 46

Constituent

ultimate ~, 64

immediate ~, 64

Context,

grammatical ~, 44

lexical ~, 44

Convergence

of homonyms, 50

conversion, 75

Creole, 128

cycles, 118

demotivation, 22

derivation, 15

~ rules, 15

degrees of ~, 68

morphological ~21, 60

name ~/creation, 21

lexical-semantic ~, 22, 36

syntactic name ~, 22, 96

zero ~, 67

derivative, 67

prefixational ~, 68

suffixational ~, 68

dialect, 123

~ variation, 133

regional ~, 124

social ~, 124

dictionaries, 136

encyclopedic ~, 148

linguistic ~, 148

Differentiation

~ of synonyms, 45

meaning ~, 52

disintegration of polysemy, or“split polysemy”, ordiverging meaning development, 57

Doublet

etymological ~, 33

dvandva, 87, see also coordinative compound, or copulative ~

ellipsis, 45

endocentric, 101

English

American ~, 130

British ~, 128

spoken ~, 129

Standard ~, 129

written ~, 128

equivalence, 152

etymology, 26

folk~, 24

euphemism, 45

extension, orwidening of meaning, 48

features or markers

semantic ~, 42

Field

lexical-semantic ~, 120

Forms

combining ~, 63, 92

fusion

phraseological ~, 106

generalization

~ of meaning , 48

Generic

~ terms, 48

~ taxonomy, 158

Group

lexical-semantic ~, 119

thematic ~, 119

glossary, 146

homograph, 50

homonym, -y, 50, 57

convergence of ~, 50

homophone, 58

hybrid, 33

hyperonym, -y, 113

hyponym, -y, 87, 113

idiolect, 123

idiom, 103

implication, 41

incompatibility, 115

intention, 36

language, 123

lexeme, 15

Lexical

~ unit, 14

Lexical-semantic

derivation, 22

differences, 132

field, 120

group, 119

naming, 46

variant, 18

lexicalization, 22, 45, 93

lexicography, 136

lexicology, 11

lexicon, 12

mental ~, 154

lingua franca, 129

loan, 30

~ translation, 31

internal ~, 33

Member (of the opposition)

marked and unmarked ~, 117

Meaning

~ affections, 43

as conditions of truth, 36

connotational ~, 41, 49

denotational ~, 41, 61

derived, or secondary ~, 55

differential or systemic ~, 61

distributional ~, 61

functional, or part of speech ~, 41

grammatical ~, 41

lexical ~, 41

major, or basic, or central ~, 55

minor, or peripheral ~ 55,

ostensive ~, 36

pragmatic ~, 41

primary ~, 55

referential ~, 40

secondary, or derived ~, 55

significative ~, 41

types of ~ 41

word-formation ~, 67

meronymy, 114

metaphor, 46

metonymy, 47

Method

~ of componential analysis, 42

~ of Immediate (IC) and Ultimate constituents (UC), 64

~ of semantic differential, (53)

Model

of polysemy, 51

integrated language ~, 162

segregated language ~, 162

morpheme, 14

bound ~, 62

derivational ~, 60

free ~, 62

inflectional, or form-building ~, 60

pseudo-~, 62

semi-free, or semi-bound ~, 62

stem-building ~, 70

unique ~, 62

motivation, 22

Naming,

~by borrowing, 21, 26

~ by word-formation, 21, 60

~ by lexicalization of word-groups(syntactic naming), 22, 96

~by lexical-semantic derivation(lexical-semantic ~), ~22, 36, 50

major types of ~, 69

minor types of ~, 88

metaphoric ~, 46

metonymic ~, 46

narrowing, orrestriction, 47

neologism, 149

onomatopoeia, or sound imitation, 92

Opposition

semantic ~, 115

ostension, 36

parts-of-speech, 111

Pattern

derivational ~, 66

pejoration, 49

phraseology, 96

Pidgin, 128

‘political correctness’, 126

polysemy, 49

‘split ~’, or disintegration of

polysemy, 57

prefix, 70

prefixation, 70

presupposition, 159

Principle

of least effort, 53

Properties

semantic ~, 43

prototype, 43

pseudo-compound, orderivational

compound, 86

pseudo-morpheme, 62

Quasi-hyponymy, 113

reduplication, 92

referent, 39

Relation

hierarchical ~, 47, 112

interfield ~, 159

paradigmatic ~, 112

semantic ~, 111

syntagmatic ~, 112

register, 128

remotivation, 24

Resemblances

phonetic-semantic ~, 63

restriction, or narrowing, 47

rhyme-motivated, 93

root, 62

Segmentability

complete ~, 43

conditional ~, 43

defective ~, 43

semantics, 36

cognitive ~, 43

lexical ~, 36

logical~, 36

syntactical ~, 37

~ of text, 37

semasiology, 36

seme, 42

Series

cyclical ~, 114

graded ~, 114

phraseological ~, 108

set-expression, 102

Shift

semantic ~, 48

stress ~ (stress interchange), 81

shortening, 89

similarity, 46

simplex, 67

slang, 12

rhyming ~, 91

sociolect, 124

specialization, 48

Structure

cognitive ~, 155

componential ~, 42

derivative ~, 65

morphemic ~, 64

semantic ~, 54

substantivation, 81

suffix, 73

suffixation, 73

suffixoid, 74

synesthesia, 46

Synonyms, -

stylistic, or ideographic, or collocational ~, 117

synonymy, 117

Theory (of meaning)

~ as conditions of truth, 36

behavioristic ~, 36

ideational ~, 37

ostensional ~, 36

referential ~, 38

translation-loan, 30

‘translator’s false friends’, 35

Triangle,

semantic ~, 39

Triplet

etymological ~, 34

Unit

lexical-naming ~, 18

phraseological ~, 104

Unities

phraseological ~, 105

Universals

semantic ~, 42

valence, 99

lexical ~, 99

grammatical ~, 99

Variant

ethnic ~/variety, 125

lexical-semantic ~, 54

phraseological ~, 108

regional, or territorial ~/variety, 128

stylistic ~, 128

social ~, 124

Verb

phrasal ~, 86

vocabulary, see alsolexicon

~acquisition, 154

~ explosion, 160

widening of meaning, orextension, 48

word, 15

archaic ~, 23

echoic~, 92

borrowed ~, 26

colloquia l ~, 42

derived ~, 67

international ~, 35

native ~, 28

monomorphic ~, 64

polymoprphic ~, 64

polysemantic ~, 50

portmanteau ~ 90, see alsoblend, blending, telescoping,

simple ~, 67

obsolete ~, 50

onomatopoeic ~, 20, 92

word-family, 94

Word-formation

analogical ~, 93

types of ~

major ~, 69

minor ~88

word manufacturing, 94

word-web, 159

 

 

 

Лещёва Людмила Модестовна

 

 

Слова в английском языке. Курс лексикологии
современного английского языка. Учебное пособие для студентов
высших учебных заведений
по специальности «Английский язык»

(на англ. языке)

 

Редактор Л.М. Лещёва. Технический редактор Т.С. Баранова.

Компьютерная верстка Л.М. Лещёвой. Художник О.А. Стасевич.

 

Подписано в печать 14.03.2002г. Бумага офсетная. Формат 60х84¹/_16.

Печать трафаретная. Усл. п.л. 10, 4. Уч.-изд. л. 8, 95.

Тираж 500. Заказ 202. Цена договорная.

Издательский центр Академии управления при Президенте Республики Беларусь.

Лицензия ЛВ № 334 от 22.10.1998. 220007, г.Минск, ул. Московская, 17

 

Отпечатано в Академии управления при Президенте Республики Беларусь

220007, г.Минск, ул. Московская, 17

⇐ Предыдущая10111213141516171819

Поделиться:

Популярное:

1. Chapter 8. VARIETIES OF THE ENGLISH LEXICON
2. Module II Fundamentals of Engineering
3. The mental lexicon. The individual vocabulary of an adult. The acquisition of the lexicon. The mental lexicon of a bilingual.
4. Ways of classifying lexicon. Types of semantic relations of lexical units. Structure of the English vocabulary