Effect of the Scandinavian Invasions

§ 281. Though the Scandinavian invasions of England are dated in the OE period, their effect on the language is particularly apparent in ME.

We may recall that since the 8th c. the British Isles were ravaged by sea rovers from Scandinavia, first by Danes, later — by Norwegians. By the end of the 9th c. the Danes had succeeded in obtaining a permanent footing in England; more than half of England was yielded to the invaders and recognised as Danish territory — " Danelaw". While some of the Scandinavians came to England merely to plunder and return to their homeland, others made their permanent home in North East England.

 

The Scandinavian invasions

In the early years of the occupation the Danish settlements were little more than armed camps. But gradually the conditions stabilised and the Danes began to bring their families. The new settlers and the English intermarried and intermixed; they lived close together and did not differ either in social rank or in the level of culture and customs; they intermingled the more easily as there was no linguistic barrier between them. (OE and O Scand belonged to the Germanic group of languages and at that time were much closer than their descendants are today.) The colonisation and the intermixture of the newcomers with their former foes continued from the 9th c. on, during two hundred years', which witnessed diverse political events: the reconquest of Da­nelaw under Alfred's successors, the renewal of Scandinavian onslaughts in the late 10th c. under Sweyne, and the political annexation of Eng­land by Denmark under Canute (see §98).

§ 282. In the areas of the heaviest settlement the Scandinavians outnumbered the Anglo-Saxon population, which is attested by geo­graphical names. In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Northumberland, Cum­berland — up to 75 per cent of the place-names are Danish or Norwe­gian. Altogether more than 1, 400 English villages and towns bear names of Scandinavian origin (with the element thorp meaning " village", e.g. Woodthorp, Linthorp; toft 'a piece of land', e.g. Brimtoft, Lo­westoft and others). Probably, in many districts people became biling­ual, with either Old Norse or English prevailing.

Eventually the Scandinavians were absorbed into the local popu­lation both ethnically and linguistically. They merged with the society around them, but the impact on the linguistic situation and on the further development of the English language was quite profound.

The increased regional differences of English in the 11th and 12th c. must partly be attributed to the Scandinavian influence. Due to the contacts and mixture with O Scand, the Northern dialects (to use OE terms, chiefly Northumbrian and East Mercian) had acquired lasting and sometimes indelible Scandinavian features. We find a large admix­ture of Scandinavian words in Early ME records coming from the North East whereas contemporary texts from other regions are practically devoid of Scandinavian borrowings.

In later ages the Scandinavian element passed into other regions. The incorporation of the Scandinavian element in the London dialect and Standard English was brought about by the changing linguistic situation in England: the mixture of the dialects and the growing lin­guistic unification[27]. Yet neither in the South nor in Standard English did the Scandinavian element ever assume such proportions as in the North-Eastern ME dialects.

The Norman Conquest

§ 283. Soon after Canute's death (1042) and the collapse of his em­pire the old AS line was restored but their reign was short-lived. The new English king, Edward the Confessor (1042-106$), who had been reared in France, brought over many Norman advisors and favourites; he distributed among them English lands and wealth to the consi­derable resentment of the Anglo-Saxon nobility and appointed them to important positions in the government and church hierarchy. He not only spoke French himself but insisted on it being spoken by the nobles at his court. William, Duke of Normandy, visited his court and it was rumoured that Edward appointed him his successor. In many respects Edward paved the way for Norman infiltration long before the Norman Conquest. However, the government of the country was still in the hands of Anglo-Saxon feudal lords, headed by the powerful Earl Godwin of Wessex.

§ 284. In 1066, upon Edward's death, the Elders of England (OE Witan) proclaimed Harold Godwin king of England. As soon as the news reached William of Normandy, he mustered a big army by prom­ise of land and plunder (one third of his soldiers were Normans, others, mercenaries from all over Europe) and, with the support of the Pope, landed in Britain.

In the battle of Hastings, fought in October 1066, Harold was killed and the English were defeated. This date is commonly known as the date of the Norman Conquest, though the military occupation of the country was not completed until a few years later. After the victory at Hastings, William by-passed London cutting it off from the North and made the Witan of London and the bishops at Westminster Abbey crown him king. William and his barons laid waste many lands in Eng­land, burning down villages and estates. They conducted a relentless campaign of subjugation, devastated and almost depopulated Northumbria and Mercia, which tried to rise against the conquerors. Scores of earthen forts and wooden stockades, built during the campaign, were soon replaced by huge stone Norman castles. Most of the lands of the Anglo-Saxon lords passed into the hands of the Norman barons, Wil­liam's own possessions comprising about one third of the country. The Normans occupied all the important posts in the church, in the govern­ment, and in the army.

Following the conquest hundreds of people from France crossed the Channel to make their home in Britain. Immigration was easy, since the Norman kings of Britain were also dukes of Normandy and, about a hundred years later, took possession of the whole western half of France, thus bringing England into still closer contact with the continent. French monks, tradesmen and craftsmen flooded the south-western towns, so that not only the higher nobility but also much of the middle class was French.

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