LETS PROCEED WITH CODE SWITCHING

⇐ ПредыдущаяСтр 3 из 5Следующая ⇒

Speakers form and establish a pidgin language when two or more speakers who do not speak a common language form an intermediate, third language. On the other hand, speakers practice code-switching when they are each fluent in both languages.

Code-switching relates to, and sometimes indexes social-group membership in bilingual and multilingual communities. Some sociolinguists describe the relationships between code-switching behaviours and class, ethnicity, and other social positions. In addition, scholars in interactional linguistics and conversation analysis have studied code-switching as a means of structuring talk in interaction. Analyst Peter Auer suggests that code-switching does not simply reflect social situations, but that it is a means to create social situations.

Mechanics of code-switching

Code-switching mostly occurs where the syntaxes of the languages align in a sentence; thus, it is uncommon to switch from English to French after an adjective and before a noun, because, in French, adjectives usually follow nouns. Even unrelated languages often align syntactically at a relative clause boundary or at the boundary of other sentence sub-structures.

Types of switching

Scholars use different names for various types of code-switching.

· Intersentential switching occurs outside the sentence or the clause level (i.e. at sentence or clause boundaries).[27] It is sometimes called " extrasentential" switching.

· Intra-sentential switching occurs within a sentence or a clause.

· Tag-switching is the switching of either a tag phrase or a word, or both, from language-B to language-A, (common intra-sentential switches)

· Intra-word switching occurs within a word, itself, such as at a morpheme boundary.

Examples of code-switching

Spanish and English — Researcher Ana Celia Zentella offers this example from her work with Puerto Rican Spanish-English bilingual speakers in New York City. In this example, Marta and her younger sister, Lolita, speak Spanish and English with Zentella outside of their apartment building.

Lolita: Oh, I could stay with Ana?

Marta: — but you could ask papi and mami to see if you could come down.

Lolita: OK.

Marta: Ana, if I leave her here would you send her upstairs when you leave?

Zentella: I’ll tell you exactly when I have to leave, at ten o’clock. Y son las nueve y cuarto. (" And it’s nine fifteen." )

Marta: Lolita, te voy a dejar con Ana. (" I’m going to leave you with Ana." ) Thank you, Ana.

Zentella explains that the children of the predominantly Puerto Rican neighbourhood speak both English and Spanish: " Within the children’s network, English predominated, but code-switching from English to Spanish occurred once every three minutes, on average."

4 LANGUAGE AND GENDER

Language and gender is an area of study within sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, and related fields that investigates varieties of speech associated with a particular gender, or social norms for such gendered language use.

A variety of speech (or sociolect) associated with a particular gender is sometimes called a genderlect.

Speech practices associated with gender Minimal responses One of the ways in which the communicative behavior of men and women differ is in their use of minimal responses, i.e., paralinguistic features such as ‘mhm’ and ‘yeah’, which is behaviour associated with collaborative language use. Men, on the other hand, generally use them less frequently and where they do, it is usually to show agreement

Questions Men and women differ in their use of questions in conversations. For men, a question is usually a genuine request for information whereas with women it can often be a rhetorical means of engaging the other’s conversational contribution or of acquiring attention from others conversationally involved, techniques associated with a collaborative approach to language use. Therefore women use questions more frequently. In writing, however, both genders use rhetorical questions as literary devices.

Changing the topic of conversation According to Bruce Dorval in his study of same-sex friend interaction, males tend to change subject more frequently than female. Goodwin (1990) observes that girls and women link their utterances to previous speakers and develop each other topics, rather than introducing new topics.

However, a study of young American couples and their interactions reveal that while women raise twice as many topics as men but it is the men's topics that are usually taken up and subsequently elaborated in the conversation.

Self-disclosure Female tendencies toward self-disclosure, i.e., sharing their problems and experiences with others, often to offer sympathy, contrasts with male tendencies to non-self disclosure and professing advice or offering a solution when confronted with another’s problems.

Men and women also tend to have a different type of humor, "

Verbal aggression Men tend to be more verbally aggressive in conversing, frequently using threats, profanities, yelling and name-calling. Women, on the whole, deem this to disrupt the flow of conversation and not as a means of upholding one’s hierarchical status in the conversation. Where women swear, it is usually to demonstrate to others what is normal behaviour for them.

However, the correlation between males and verbal aggression may not apply across different societies and cultures.

Listening and attentiveness It appears that women attach more weight than men to the importance of listening in conversation, with its connotations of power to the listener as confidant of the speaker. This attachment of import by women to listening is inferred by women’s normally lower rate of interruption — i.e., disrupting the flow of conversation with a topic unrelated to the previous one — and by their largely increased use of minimal responses in relation to men. Men, however, interrupt far more frequently with non-related topics, especially in the mixed sex setting and, far from rendering a female speaker's responses minimal, are apt to greet her conversational spotlights with silence,

Politeness Lakoff (1975) identified three forms of politeness: formal, deference, and camaraderie. Women's language is characterized by formal and deference politeness, whereas men’s language is exemplified by camaraderie.Politeness in speech is described in terms of positive and negative face. Positive face refers to one's desire to be liked and admired, while negative face refers to one's wish to remain autonomous and not to suffer imposition. Both forms, are used more frequently by women whether in mixed or single-sex pairs, suggesting for Brown a greater sensitivity in women than have men to face the needs of others. In short, women are to all intents and purposes largely more polite than men. However, negative face politeness can be potentially viewed as weak language because of its associated hedges and tag questions

Gender-neutral languageGender-neutral language, gender-inclusive language, inclusive language, or gender neutrality is linguistic prescriptivism that aims to eliminate (or neutralize) reference to gender in terms that describe people. For example, the words chairman, fireman, lesbian, and stewardess are gender-specific; the corresponding gender-neutral terms are chairperson (or chair), firefighter, homosexual, and flight attendant. The pronoun he may be replaced with he or she or s/he when the gender of the person referred to is unknown. Other gender-specific terms, such as actor and actress may be replaced by the originally male term (actor used for either gender). " Gender-neutral language" should not be confused with genderless language, which refers to languages without grammatical gender.

Advocates of gender-neutral language believe it promotes inclusion of all sexes or genders (gender-inclusive language), and that traditional terms are sexist. Opponents may consider the traditional terms to be non-sexist (e.g., " steward" and " stewardess" as distinct but equal terms) or may accept the pronoun " he" as a generic for both genders.Белоснежка

Жила-была одна молоденькая принцесса, которая была вовсе не неприятна на вид, и характер у нее был такой, что многие признавали его лучшим, чем у других. Ее называли Белоснежкой, что указывает на укоренившееся дискриминационное предубеждение— ассоциировать приятные или привлекательные свойства со светом, а неприятные или непривлекательные качества — с темнотой. Таким образом, с раннего возраста Белоснежка была невольной, хоть и удачливой мишенью для подобного мышления — дискриминации по цвету кожи.

Золушка

Жила-была молодая женщина по имени Золушка, чья природная мать умерла, когда Золушка была еще ребенком. Несколько лет спустя ее отец женился на вдове с двумя более взрослыми дочерьми. Мачеха Золушки обращалась с ней очень жестоко, а сводные сестры заставляли ее трудиться до седьмого пота, как будто она была их личным неоплачиваемым работником.

Однажды в дом прислали приглашение. Принц решил в честь эксплуатации неимущего и маргинального крестьянства устроить бал-карнавал. Сводных сестер Золушки очень взволновало это приглашение во дворец. Они стали обдумывать дорогие наряды, для того чтобы изменить свой природный образ в подражание реально не существующему стандарту женской красоты. (Это было особенно нереально в их случае, так как они были столь нестандартной внешности, что от их вида могли остановиться часы.) Ее мачеха тоже собиралась поехать на бал, так что Золушке пришлось вертеться как белке в колесе (подходящая метафора, но, к сожалению, некорректная по отношению к виду животных)..

Приведенные тексты не нуждаются в комментариях. Обратим внимание лишь на несколько «политически корректных» исправлений привычных слов.

Слова Snow White и Белоснежка политически некорректны в обоих языках (и в английском, и в русском), потому что имеют white и бело- и таким образом внушают расистскую идею, что «белый» — это хорошо, положительно, а «черный»— плохо, отрицательно. Вместо привычного very poor [очень бедный] в описании Джека и его матери читаем very excluded from the normal circles of economic activity [исключены из сфер обычной экономической активности]. В другой сказке вместо very poor приводится обычный политически корректный вариант— very economically disadvantaged [экономически ущемленный].

В сказке о трех козлятах самый маленький (the smallest) описывается так: this goat was the least chronologically accomplished of the siblings and thus had achieved the least superiority in size [этот козленок хронологически был наименее развитым из всех братьев и поэтому не добился преимущества в размере]».

Некрасивые сестры Золушки были differently visaged [нестандартной внешности], а красивая Белоснежка описана по законам «недооценки» — understatement: not at all unpleasant to look at [вовсе не неприятная на вид]. И в корзине у Красной Шапочки, разумеется, не было политически некорректных пирожков и масла. Это была a basket of fresh fruit and mineral water [корзиночка с фруктами и минеральной водой] по вполне очевидным причинам, которые Красная Шапочка не преминула объяснить бабушке: Red Riding Hood entered the cottage and said: «Grandma, I have brought you some fat-free, sodium-free snacks» [Красная Шапочка вошла в дом и сказала: «Бабушка, я принесла тебе обезжиренные гостинцы, не содержащие нитратов»]

CONSTRUCTED LANGUAGE

A planned or constructed language (sometimes called a conlang) is a language whose phonology, grammar, and vocabulary have been consciously devised for human or human-like communication, instead of having developed naturally. It is also referred to as an artificial or invented language.

There are many possible reasons to create a constructed language, such as:

· to ease human communication (see international auxiliary language and code),

· to give fiction or an associated constructed world an added layer of realism, for experimentation in the fields of linguistics, cognitive science, and machine learning,

· for artistic creation,

· and for language games.

The expression planned language is sometimes used to mean international auxiliary languages and other languages designed for actual use in human communication. Some prefer it to the term " artificial", as that term may have pejorative connotations in some languages.

Planned, constructed, artificialThe terms " planned", " constructed", and " artificial" are used differently in some traditions. An artificial language can also refer to languages which emerge naturally out of experimental studies within the framework of artificial language evolution.

In terms of purpose, most constructed languages can broadly be divided into:

Engineered languages (engelangs /ˈ ɛ nd͡ ʒ læ ŋ z/), further subdivided into

logical languages (loglangs),

philosophical languages and

experimental languages; devised for the purpose of experimentation in logic, philosophy, or linguistics;

Auxiliary languages (auxlangs) devised for international communication (also IALs, for International Auxiliary Language);

Artistic languages (artlangs) devised to create aesthetic pleasure or humorous effect, just for fun; usually secret languages and mystical languages are classified as artlangs

The boundaries between these categories are by no means clear. A constructed language can have native speakers if young children learn it from parents who speak it fluently.

A priori and a posteriori languages

An a priori language is a language whose vocabulary is not based on an existing language. An a posteriori language is the opposite. An example of an a priori language could be lojban. An example of an a posteriori language could be Esperanto or Interlingua.

⇐ Предыдущая 1 234 5 Следующая ⇒