SIZE and TYPES of BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS

 

As we have learnt, firms appear when team effort can produce goods and services at a lower cost than an individual producer. This occurs because of the increased efficiency that may be gained when labour and capital are coordinated by managers’talents. Let us consider the varying sizes of firms and the advantages and disadvantages of various ways that the firms can be organized.

The most efficient size for firms (the size that performs at the lowest cost of production) varies greatly. The most efficient scale of production (1) can be as small as a hot dog stand on a street corner or as large as a General Motors assembly plant.

A firm’s scale of production affects the amount of capital equipment it needs. Owners of firms that require large-scale production (2) have to make large expenditures on buildings, machines, raw materials, etc. These expenditures can amount to millions of dollars. The larger the scale of production, the larger the amount of funds which the owners need to buy capital equipment.

Generally, there are three categories of ownership (3): a proprietorship (4), a partnership (5), and a corporation.

A proprietorship is a firm that has a single owner who is legally responsible for all the debts of the firm. More often than not, the sole proprietor (6) also works in the firm as a manager or an employee.. Most single-owner firms are small. Many small retail establishments are proprietorships. The primary disadvantage of the proprietorship is that the welfare of the firm largely depends on one person. Proprietorships are the dominant form of business organization in the American economy.

A partnership has two or more co-owners. These partners share financing of capital investments and profits. Partnerships suit well to lines of team production that involve creative or intellectual skills, areas in which monitoring is difficult. The partnership also has certain limitations. Individual partners cannot get their share of the partnership without the approval of the other partners. The partnership needs costly reorganization each time a partner dies or sells its share. Each partner is legally responsible for all the debts to the full extent of the individual partner’s wealth. Because of these limitations partnerships constitute a small percentage of firms and business revenues in the US economy.

Corporations. While corporations are not the most numerous form of business organization in the United States, they account for nearly 90% of total business revenues. What is a corporation? Corporation is a firm which belongs to one or more individuals who hold shares of stock (7) that indicate ownership but who have limited liability (8).

 

Пояснения к тексту:

1. scale of production масштаб производства;

2. large-scale production крупносерийное производство

3. ownership собственность, право собственности

4. proprietorship единоличное право собственности, единоличное

частное предприятие

5. partnership товарищество

6. a sole proprietor единоличный частный предприниматель

7. shares of stock aкции

8. limited liability ограниченная ответственность

 

 

V. Ответьте на вопросы письменно:

1. What occurs when good managers coordinate labour and capital?

2. What are the main categories of ownership?

3. Which form of business organization accounts for the greatest

portion of the total business revenue in the US economy?

 

Контрольная работа № 3

 

Изучите следующие разделы грамматики по учебнику:

1. Видо-временные формы глагола. Пассивный залог: формы Indefinite (Present, Past, Future); Continuous (Present, Past); Perfect (Present, Past, Future).

2. Функции глаголов to be, to have, to do.

3. Неопределенная форма глагола. (the Infinitive)простые и сложные формы (Passive, Perfect). Функции инфинитива в предложении: а) подлежащего; б) части сказуемого; в) дополнения; г) определения; д) обстоятельства.

4. Обороты, равнозначные придаточным предложениям, объектный инфинитивный оборот, субъектный инфинитивный оборот.

5. Грамматические функции и значения слов that, one, it.

6. Различные значения слов: as, because, because of, due to, for, since, both... and, either... or, neither... nor.

 

Вариант I

I. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них

видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите

предложения на русский язык.

 

1. The members of the board of directors are nominated by the management.

2. The need for efficiency in management has been magnified.

3. A large share of income will be given to schools.

4. All the stocks of the company were held by family members.

 

II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,

обращая внимание на различное значение слов to be, to have, to do.

 

1. A partnership is an agreement between two or more individuals to own and operate a business together.

2. The owners are usually the managers of partnerships.

3. The only feature all business has in common in a free enterprise economy is the search for profit.

4. The men who currently occupy positions at the top have to learn that an arsenal of new technology makes it possible to talk on the phone, receive faxes, look through newspapers, and use computers at the same time.

 

III. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая

внимание на функцию инфинитива.

 

1. If a single owner plans to spend the entire income of his firm for his own personal use, he will not want to use the corporate form.

2. There is plenty to be done.

3. To understand reports of market behaviour you have to study economics thoroughly.

4. Representatives of consumers need to be present in decision–making procedures.

 

IV. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие

предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный инфинитивные

обороты соответствуют придаточным предложениям.

 

1. We expect the contract to be signed immediately.

2. We haven’t received the shipment which was supposed to arrive two weeks ago.

3. I want you to go to the office and speak to the manager about it.

4. He proved to be a very experienced worker.

V. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие

предложения, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.

 

1. In middle-income countries the income per head is 840 pounds, that is in countries like Thailand and Brazil.

2. A scarce resource is one for which the demand at zero price would exceed the available supply.

3. It is likely that unemployment figures will rise.

4. That is one possibility, but there is another one: unemployment benefit can reduce incentives to work.

 

VI. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая

внимание на различное значение выделенных слов.

 

1. Since all firms are privately owned they, try to make the largest profits possible.

2. Because these people help to coordinate the company’s advertising program with its sales program, they must have an aptitude for both advertising and management.

3. Many firms are investing funds because they expect high sales.

4. The economic environment alters as the economy moves into a recession.

VII. Прочитайте текст. Письменно переведите на русский язык.

Ответьте письменно на следующие вопросы:

1. What is national income?

2. What does the nation’s income consist of?

3. What is government income?

*******

yardstick – критерий

proprietors – частные предприниматели

flow concept – изменяющиеся понятия

gross national product (GNP) – валовой национальный продукт

 

The Nation’s Income

What is national income?

National income in its broadest sense measures the total activity of a country over a period of time. This yardstick calculates the current flow of incomes earned by such owners of resources as workers, proprietors, and business firms; it is a flow concept and not a catalog of accumulated wealth. Income is not a measure of the value of oil in the ground, but of the gallons of oil pumped, refined, and sold to the consumer during a current year.

National income differs sharply from government income, the amount collected by the Internal Revenue Service to pay for federal expenditures. The income of the federal government, large as it is, represents only one small share of the total economic effort of the nation. Government income is a part of the national income.

The nation’s income of all final goods and services produced during a given period of time is often referred to as the gross national product (GNP). It is the nation’s output calculated at market prices and provides the most popular yardstick of economic performance. Consumers as a whole cannot possibly buy more than total output even if their incomes were to increase overnight, like manna from heaven.

 

Вариант II

I. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них

видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите

предложения на русский язык.

 

1. Markets can be traced back in history to the earliest periods of mankind and have been rearranged over the centuries to fit changing economic conditions.

2. Only when the opposition is led by very wealthy men it has a reasonably good chance of victory.

3. The maximum tax will be effectively reduced by more than 16 percent.

4. All income, losses and deductions were carried directly to the individual tax return for each shareholder.

 

II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,

обращая внимание на различное значение слов to be, to have, to do.

1. A single owner of a business is responsible for the entire activity of his firm.

2. The stockholders have limited liability and are not responsible for corporate actions.

3. When they did not like the management they held a meeting and voted for a change.

4. It all depends on the preferences of the society that has to make this choice.

 

III. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая

внимание на функцию инфинитива.

 

1. Planners* are likely to underproduce some items as they cannot predict changes in demand.

2. It is important to devote scarce resources to improving the environment.

3. To avoid this the computer warns the operators about excessive purchasing.

4. In the event of a delay in delivery of the equipment the seller is to pay the buyer a penalty.

* planners – сторонники плановой экономики, плановики

 

IV. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие

предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный инфинитивные

обороты соответствуют придаточным предложениям.

1. There seems to be a great difference between these two samples.

2. He happened to be at the office at that time.

3. I know her to be a very skilled worker.

4. Communication is supposed to have no limits nowadays.

 

V. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие

предложения, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.

 

1. You have an annual income: that is what you earn in a year.

2. It’s commonly asserted that high tax rates reduce the incentive to work.

3. Investors want management to make financial decisions that will boost sales, profits and returns on their investments.

4. A good manager is one who can persuade people that his way is right.

 

VI. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая

внимание на различное значение выделенных слов.

 

1. We have to raise our price for item because of increased raw material costs.

2. He did as he was requested.

3. I find your position absolutely necessary for the agency.

4. The boss is either at the office or in the bank.

5. I have lived in this city since we moved here three years ago.

 

VII. Прочитайте текст. Письменно переведите на русский язык.

Ответьте письменно на следующие вопросы:

1. What is capital in an economic discussion of productive factors?

2. What is capital to most people?

3. Is capital an elusive concept in the classification of productive factors?

*****

share – акция

boom town – популярный, быстроразвивающийся город

to stay alive – остаться в живых

capital good – средство производства

Capital

The word capital has many meanings. To most people, it is simply a certain amount of money; to an accountant, it may represent the value of the shares of a firm. In an economic discussion of productive factors, capital means the fruits of past productive efforts which have become available to help future production.

You may own a tract of land in a boom town ideally situated for the erection of new homes. Unless you can get construction equipment, such as excavating machines and concrete mixers, your houses will not be ready when they are needed. Fortunately, this equipment is available and the houses can be started without delay. The availability of resources, which have previously been combined into usable tools, is the essential ingredient of capital. But we must not overlook the element of proper timing, which is an important part of the production process.

Capital is the most elusive concept in our classification of productive factors. A highly simplified example may help to clarify its meaning. Let us assume that a man is stranded on an island where he is the only human being alive. He exists by eating coconuts which he gathers and opens with his bare hands. Working seven hours a day, he collected enough to stay alive, but no more. Obviously, even a crude tool forged from stone would greatly simplify his job. If it takes him a day to shape such a tool, he must work an extra hour every day for a week and store the daily coconut surplus to accumulate some food for the day when he will be busy making the tool. He gives up an hour of his leisure time and refrains from eating the extra food collected in the last hour in order to be able to produce his tool. The food accumulated by his special effort is his capital, and the tool produced with its help is a capital good.

Вариант III

I. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них

видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите

предложения на русский язык.

 

1. At the end of each fiscal year, total earnings or losses are prorated to each shareholder.

2. Many new small companies are being created in our country.

3. Only products which will not endanger health or safety are put on the market.

4. We couldn’t cancel the order because it had already been sent.

II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,

обращая внимание на различное значение слов to be, to have, to do.

 

1. Managers of factories and mines are to obey safety requirements.

2. The bonds have lost much of their value.

3. I’ll try to do it.

4. Some taxes are the same for every legal form enterprise, but taxes on the income of a corporation differ substantially.

III. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая

внимание на функцию инфинитива.

 

1. Many women are happy to work at home after they have put their children to bed.

2. The European Commission created an independent Consumer Policy Service in order to give more authority to the implementation of consumer policy.

3. Consumers have the right to receive advice and help when seeking redress for faulty products.

4. We are sorry to inform you that our client became insolvent.

 

IV. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие

предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный инфинитивные

обороты соответствуют придаточным предложениям.

 

1. The agreement between those two firms was found to be quite productive.

2. The contract appears to be most acceptable.

3. The output of machinery is known to be steadily increasing all over the world.

4. Nuclear plants are expected to be located away from urban areas.

 

V. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие

предложения, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.

1. May we again remind you that this account is still overdue.

2. Does one need to include an agreement with your agents?

3. It is far more profitable for them.

4. It corresponds to the highest standards and to the highest level of technology.

VI. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая

внимание на различное значение выделенных слов.

 

1. Total spending declines as income falls and unemployment rises.

2. Because of the reorganization of our production we cannot use the ordered material.

3. These are agreements for merchant firms and sales agents.

4. Since we have gone over the budget, we cannot buy any computers.

VII. Прочитайте текст. Письменно переведите на русский язык.

Ответьте письменно на следующие вопросы:

1. What is a wage rate?

2. What is the most important form of income?

3. Do people always receive what they are worth?

 

*****

finished goods – произведенные товары

in dispute – обсуждается

… would ensure his receiving all he is worth – … придаст уверенности, что он обязательно получит все, что заслуживает

 

Wages

A wage rate is the price paid for human effort. A wage may be called a salary, a commission, a stipend, or any other term particular to specific types of work. Regardless of its name, every wage is a cost to the employer and an income to the worker. Wages still represent the largest share of all production costs and the most important form of income. Unless rising productivity permits better utilization of human labor, increases in labor costs are likely to be reflected in higher prices for finished goods. A rise in a worker’s income adds to satisfaction, but it does so only if the higher income buys more goods. Both aspects of wages – cost and income – are forcefully argued about by employers and workers when wage rates are in dispute.

We shall make the unrealistic assumption here that both employers and workers know of all alternative opportunities and are ready to make a switch for a better offer. In such a situation, the lowest wage at which a worker would become available would be determined by his contribution to the production process. If one employer should try to pay less, he could not find people to work for him, since the worker knows where he can receive higher pay and is willing to take advantage of it. The competition of employers for his services would ensure his receiving all he is worth.

 

Вариант IV

I. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них

видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите

предложения на русский язык.

 

1. According to the data of 1991, nearly 64% of GDP (внутренний национальный продукт) was devoted to private consumption.

2. In the ladies’ department, dresses have been reduced to prices as low as half price and some have been reduced even lower.

3. When a card is presented anywhere in payment for goods or services, the place of business must accept the card without questions.

4. The price was not accepted by the buyers.

 

II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,

обращая внимание на различное значение слов to be, to have, to do.

 

1. General Electric has renewed their efforts to help women reach higher levels because they believe that it is good for their profits.

2. If the parties do not come to an agreement, all the disputes are to be submitted for Arbitration.

3. The seller is to take care of and cover expenses for insurance of the equipment under the contract.

4. The contract had to be discussed before the director’s departure.

 

III. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая

внимание на функцию инфинитива.

 

1. We have the right to claim a penalty.

2. We’ll also send you some documents to facilitate customs clearance.

3. We plan to compensate you for your losses.

4. The seller is to inform the buyer by fax regarding the date of shipment.

 

IV. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие

предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный инфинитивные

обороты соответствуют придаточным предложениям.

 

1. They expected the manager to talk to them.

2. I wanted him to be invited to the negotiations.

3. He seemed to have absolutely forgotten about his obligations.

4. She appeared to be the best book-keeper in our company.

 

V. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие

предложения, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.

 

1. It is generous of you to take so much interest in our work.

2. At one extreme we have a command economy; at the other extreme we have a free market.

3. We have no doubt that we shall find a satisfactory market for our goods in your country.

4. It is consumers who decide what is to be produced.

 

VI. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая

внимание на различное значение выделенных слов.

 

1. Since there is not enough of everything, everyone – individuals and business firms need to make choices from among the things they want.

2. He signed neither the contract nor the payment orders.

3. You are right, as usual.

4. Our competitors are discounting 22% of their list price, due to immediate delivery.

 

VII. Прочитайте текст. Письменно переведите на русский язык.

Ответьте письменно на следующие вопросы:

1. What is personal income?

2. What are transfer payments?

3. Do people receive all incomes earned in the nation?

*****

as a practical matter – практически, на практике

transfer payment – трансферные платежи

tax payers – налогоплательщики

 

Personal Income

Personal income is a statistical measure of the earning received by people. You may feel that all business is owned by people, that government is controlled by people, and that, therefore, people receive all incomes earned in the nation. As a practical matter, however, people are concerned only with that part of the nation’s income which they own directly.

The difference between personal income data and the usually larger national income series results from the fact that corporate profits and direct business taxes are included in national, but are not part of people’s earnings, except for any portion paid out to owners as dividends. This difference is compensated for in part by payments from the government which add directly to individual incomes in the form of social security checks. These additions to personal income are called transfer payments; they are paid by reason of provisions of the law rather than for services rendered. Funds are transferred by the government from taxpayers to recipients entitled to these payments.

 

Контрольная работа №4

 

Изучите следующие разделы грамматики по учебнику:

1. Простые и сложные формы герундия, его функции в предложении. Герундиальный оборот.

2. Простые и сложные формы причастия; его функции в предложении.

3. Сослагательное наклонение.

4. Условные предложения I, II, III типов.

 

Вариант I

 

I. Перепишите предложения. Укажите, в каких синтаксических

функциях употребляется герундий. Переведите на русский язык.

 

1. It’s foolish to make a decision without knowing the facts.

2. If we don’t reach a mutual understanding, our company will have to go through arbitration procedures.

3. She denies having been in the office that evening.

4. The customers thanked the bank for giving them a loan.

 

II. Перепишите предложения. Подчеркните причастие. Переведите на

русский язык, обращая внимание на различные формы причастия.

1. The payment order referred to in your previous letter has been received by the customer.

2. We hope the amount transferred to your bank will be duly received.

3. Manufacturing industries account for one-fifth of GNP (gross national product).

4. A government allows its citizens to produce and export those things they are best at and to import the rest, choosing from whatever the world has to offer.

 

III. Перепишите предложения. Переведите на русский язык, обращая

внимание на сослагательное наклонение.

 

1. Our superior wishes that she were more interested in her work.

2. It’s high time the contract were signed.

3. I wish you had told me about the negotiations.

4. He behaves himself as if he has known them for many years.

 

IV. Перепишите предложения. Переведите на русский язык, обращая

внимание на различные типы условных предложений.

 

1. We’ll sign the contracts if they give us a good discount.

2. If I were you, I should invite the businessmen to a restaurant.

3. I should not think much if I were to choose.

4. If you had not rung me up yesterday, I should have been waiting for you the whole evening.

V. Прочитайте текст. Переведите письменно на русский язык. Ответьте

письменно на вопросы:

1. What is a partnership?

2. What is needed to set a partnership in motion?

3. Give some examples of partnerships.

*****

verbal agreement – устная договоренность

conducting a business – ведение бизнеса

set in motion – привести в действие

drop out – зд.: уйти, покинуть компанию партнеров по бизнесу

interest - доля, участие в прибылях

commit - являться поручителем, принимать на себя обязательства

Partnership

A partnership is an agreement between two or more individuals to own and operate a business together. In his business transactions, each partner commits not only himself and the firm, but all other partners as well.

In its simple informality, a partnership resembles a proprietorship in that it is a very personal form of conducting a business. Only a verbal agreement between the owners is needed to set it in motion. Even the most elementary wisdom, however, dictates the need for a written contract between partners before misunderstandings arise. If one partner buys a new truck and the firm fails to pay on time, the other partners are just as responsible for the bill as the one who arranged the purchase. Since each individual can commit the other partners, none of them can drop out or sell his interest without permission from the others. This intimate link is the strength that permits informality in the management; but it is also the basic weakness which limits the use of partnership to a few areas of business.

Partnerships are often seen in the professions. Lawyers, doctors, accountants and architects find partnerships well-suited to their needs. Brokerage firms and investment banks were conducted as partnerships until legal obstacles to incorporation were introduced in the 1950’s. The partnership form of enterprise is also well-suited to a large number of special situations usually expected to last for only a limited time. As can be expected, the rate of turnover in partnerships is great.

Вариант II

 

I. Перепишите предложения. Укажите, в каких синтаксических функциях

употребляется герундий. Переведите на русский язык.

 

1. Among the advantages of small business is no “double taxation” – paying an income tax on corporate income, and then paying an individual income tax.

2. He avoids speaking to the sales manager.

3. Our accountant didn’t succeed in operating the computer.

4. I remember having given this instruction.

II. Перепишите предложения. Подчеркните причастие. Переведите на

русский язык, обращая внимание на различные формы причастия.

 

1. We enclose the letter received from the beneficiaries* requesting details of the above transfer.

2. If mailed, a bank transfer is known as a mail transfer.

3. The door having been opened, our Commercial Director came in.

4. A smiling boss makes for a happy and more productive employee.

* beneficiaries – получатели платежа

 

III. Перепишите предложения. Переведите на русский язык, обращая

внимание на сослагательное наклонение.

 

1. I wish he were at the office.

2. He speaks about it as if he had seen the contract himself.

3. I wish I heard something pleasant from my superior.

4. I wish he were be at the negotiations.

 

 

IV. Перепишите предложения. Переведите на русский язык, обращая

внимание на различные типы условных предложений.

 

1. I should have signed the contract if they had given us a good discount.

2. If they have a good sale, I will stop by on my way home.

3. If I had seen our sales manager I should have spoken to him about the item of the contract.

4. If I had had more time, I would have checked my papers again.

 

V. Прочитайте текст. Переведите письменно на русский язык. Ответьте

письменно на вопросы:

1. What are tax contributions based on?

2. Does the right to private property include the right to own the means of production?

3. What safeguards have been developed in the evolution of modern business?

*****

circumscribed – ограничено

inheritance laws – законы о наследовании имущества

means of production – средства производства

evolution of modern business – развитие современного бизнеса

safeguards – предосторожности

 

Private Ownership

The desire to own things is universal. Man’s instinct to acquire more possessions is innate. Our system enlists this self-interest motive to promote greater and more effective economic efforts, but unlimited accumulation of goods in the hands of a few lucky people does not contribute to the living standard of the majority. The privilege of private ownership in our society is therefore circumscribed by many obligations. The government has the right to relieve its citizens of property in the interest of the general welfare, as long as suitable compensation is provided. Tax contributions are based in part on the size of private wealth. Inheritance laws make it difficult for too many possessions to be accumulated in too few hands.

The right to private property is not limited to personal use, but includes the right to own the means of production. This particular ownership privilege has been traditionally attacked with vehemence by adherents of socialist doctrine. Socialists feel that ownership of capital goods confers too much economic power on the individual, who may abuse it to the detriment of his fellow citizens. In the evolution of modern business, certain safeguards have been developed against the abuse of private power, without eliminating the incentive and responsibility which accompany ownership.

Вариант III

 

I. Перепишите предложения. Укажите, в каких синтаксических

функциях употребляется герундий. Переведите на русский язык.

 

1. The task of solving this problem is extremely difficult.

2. Arriving in Moscow, he went to the airport.

3. You can help our company by signing the agreement.

4. I remember having been given this instruction.

 

II. Перепишите предложения. Подчеркните причастие. Переведите на

русский язык, обращая внимание на различные формы причастия.

 

1. The letter mentioned above should be sent to the beneficiary.

2. The work completed, our managers went to the Crimea to rest.

3. The analysts watched the prices falling.

4. In an interlinked global economy, consumers are given the opportunity to buy the best products at the best prices.

III. Перепишите предложения. Переведите на русский язык, обращая

внимание на сослагательное наклонение.

 

1. It is high time that you got down to business.

2. I wish we advertised our products via television, internet and direct mail, as advertising is an important element of marketing.

3. He wished his wages had been much higher.

4. He looked as if he had lost his job.

IV. Перепишите предложения. Переведите на русский язык, обращая

внимание на различные типы условных предложений.

 

1. If they had seen you yesterday they would have certainly told you about their financial standing.

2. If our purchasing manager had not been so busy, he would have arranged an appointment.

3. We shall prolong the agreement, if they grant exclusive rights.

4. We should change some items of the list of equipment we have to deliver to them if they made appropriate amendments to the contract.

 

V. Прочитайте текст. Переведите письменно на русский язык. Ответьте

письменно на вопросы:

1. What must be taken into consideration when tax collection problems are discussed?

2. What are the advantages of cigarette taxes?

3. When does the problem of collecting taxes become relatively simple?

*****

tax stamps – акцизные марки

metering device – средство измерения

actual loads carried – фактически перевозимые грузы

taxpayers – налогоплательщики

 

The Cost of Tax Collection

The administrative burden of collecting a tax may seem of minor importance, but an efficient method of revenue collection keeps costs to a small fraction of the amount raised. The need for enforcement must also be taken into consideration when collection problems are discussed.

Administration is simplified when the collector needs to contact only a few people and when he is able to render the tax self-enforcing. Cigarette taxes, for example, have both advantages. The manufacturer’s excise tax makes the producer a tax collector; the firm buys stamps and uses them to seal every package. Whenever a metering device can measure taxable amounts mechanically, the problem of collection is relatively simple.

Taxing a truck on the basis of actual loads carried would cost too much for the enforcement to be worth the effort. The effective collection of high income taxes from many millions of small taxpayers necessitated the introduction of the withholding principle. Most of the tax due is deducted by the employer and never reaches the income earner.

 

Вариант IV

 

I. Перепишите предложения. Укажите, в каких синтаксических функциях

употребляется герундий. Переведите на русский язык.

 

1. There is no fear of losing much time.

2. He left the office without informing us of it.

3. In spite of being busy he did all he could.

4. He insists on being sent the documents to the customers.

II. Перепишите предложения. Подчеркните причастие. Переведите на

русский язык, обращая внимание на различные формы причастия.

 

1. Moreover, there are devices used by criminals to decide whether a stolen card* can be used again or if it is hot*.

2. Whenever a country imports or exports goods and services, there is a resulting flow of funds: money returns to the exporting nation and money flows out of the importing nation.

3. The department demands an increased bonus.

4. Big companies have many managers heading departments.

* card – кредитная карта

hot – зд.: зафиксирована в базе данных украденных кредитных карт

 

III. Перепишите предложения. Переведите на русский язык, обращая

внимание на сослагательное наклонение.

 

1. It’s time that they came to some conclusion.

2. He looked as if he had already decided on some action.

3. I wish our financial standing were all right so that we could establish a business.

4. He wished they had exported the equipment abroad, as it could give them substantial profit.

 

IV. Перепишите предложения. Переведите на русский язык, обращая

внимание на различные типы условных предложений.

 

1. If I had had time yesterday I should have written a letter of complaint to our partners.

2. If our manager didn’t discuss it with the ship-owners, we should suffer some losses through this delay.

3. We’ll buy new computers if we don’t go over the budget.

4. He would be promoted faster if he were more skilled.

 

V. Прочитайте текст. Переведите письменно на русский язык. Ответьте

письменно на вопросы:

1. How do people try to protect themselves against inflation?

2. In what way does the Treasury finance public expenditures?

3. How can public authority stop inflation?

*****

bond – облигация

assets – ценные бумаги

common stocks – обычные акции

expenditures – траты, расходы

get rid of – избавиться от...

shrewd – проницательный, практичный

public expenditures – общественные расходы

 

The End of Inflation

A steady, uninterrupted price rise will eventually snowball out of control. Shrewd observers discover early that it pays to buy in advance and pay later. They sell their bonds and all other assets with a fixed dollar value and instead buy common stocks and real estate. Every round of higher prices increases the number of people who try to protect themselves against inflation in the same way. They buy stocks which are no longer cheap. Eventually most everyone is trying to do the same thing, only to discover that business transactions require both buyers and sellers for the same merchandise. The Treasury finds it difficult to sell new bonds to the public; they finance public expenditures by raising the money supply even more and thus help to increase the inflationary trend.

Inflation has run its course when people start buying goods they do not want, solely for the purpose of getting rid of money in order to protect themselves against its loss of value. The monetary unit is no longer a usable means of exchange, and the economy must start all over again. This is the logical end of hyperinflation.

Public authority can stop this collapse much earlier through its control of government spending and the money supply. People can demand such action because they know that inflation is not an act of God and can be avoided by taking the appropriate steps at the right time.

 

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