Rewrite the following sentences using the given words.

1. The first DNA model made by Watson and Crick was widely off the mark. A better knowledge of chemistry might have saved them from the humiliating mistake.

……perhaps…. would have…

2. But if Bacon genuinely thought this, it must have been because he never bothered to read Aristotle at first hand.

………certainly……

 

3. Maxwell realized that the theory had profound philosophical implications, and he may not have risked publishing it had there not already been good precedent.

…………perhaps…… didn’t…

 

4. If Boyle was right, then elements could only be mixed together, not changed – and the idea of the four elements might have to be abandoned.

………..would ….probably……..

5. As a boy, Louis Pasteur had more talent for art than science, and it was said that he could have been a great painter.

…..probably … would have….

 

6. Rutherford, however, provided experimental evidence that Nagaoka might have been right after all.

…. quite possible …was….

7. The story of the falling apple may have had some foundation in truth, or at least stemmed from Newton himself, and his admirer, Voltaire, had it from Newton’s niece.

.... likely… have…

 

8.  Singularly little is known about Fermat’s student years, though he must have been a brilliant student as his accomplishments in his maturity suggest.

….. no doubt… was ….

 

CONFUSABLES

 

alike,     like,      likely,            unlike, unlikely,   likewise,         look like

 

Translate the following sentences.

1.Helicopters, tanks, cars, aero planes, bicycles, parachutes − all appear on Leonardo’ pages, 500 years before they became a reality. It seems unlikely that anyone else even knew about them except the few who acquired his notebooks.

2. Ten years before his death Leonardo designed a glider that had a genuine control system not unlike modern hang gliders.

3. Leonardo also designed a helicopter to climb vertically into the air carrying men on a platform beneath it. Unlike modern helicopters, it did not have rotor blades, but a spiral screw.

4. Galileo had the insight to use the telescope to look at the night sky and make impressive discoveries there including the mountains on the Moon’s surface; the moons of Jupiter; the fact that Venus has phases like the Moon.

5.  In a coal-fired gas turbine, heat produced by burning fuel is transferred from the burner to the gas.  The steam engine, often referred to as the workhorse of the industrial revolution, likewise used the expansion of a hot gas: water vapor.

6. An attempt to buff up scientists image and make them look like actors (the most important people in society) was a calendar featuring bulging biceps of beefcake

Ph. Ds.

7. Darwin’s publication of his famous book On the Origin of Species, in which he outlined his ideas of evolution supported by a wealth of evidence aroused great debates among scientists, clergy and laymen alike.

 

LISTENING COMPREHENSION  The Force of I. Newton

You will hear a part of the lecture devoted to I. Newton’s life, interests and contributions in science. Write a summary using the following headings.

1. Recognized and recognizable                               2. Less known interest

3. Revolutionary Newtonian Synthesis                    4. Before and after Newton

5. Early Life Seeds                                                    6. Amazing Coincidence

7. Unhappy experiences                                            8. Family Decision

9. Cambridge                                                            10. Calculus controversy

11. Research in Optics                                             12. Other Theories

UNIT 11                       THE EARTH

1. Read the text:

4500 million years ago, the Earth was a ball of molten rock which has slowly cooled. During this period, heavier metals sunk to the centre of the Earth forming a core of dense, partly solid, partly molten iron, nickel and sulphur at about 4000°C . The core is surrounded by a thick layer of moderately dense solid and molten rock in the mantle at temperatures between 1500 and 4000°C.

Less dense material collected on the surface of the Earth forming a thin, solid crust about 50 km thick. Where the crust is thickest, its surface is above sea level. The rocks in the crust are mainly carbonates and silicates. Outside and above the Earth is the atmosphere – a layer of gases about 100 km deep. At about 6 km above sea level, the air becomes too thin for us to survive. The oceans are about 6 km deep, so almost all life on Earth exists in a relatively thin band about 12 km thick.

While the Earth was still forming, the atmosphere was mainly hydrogen and helium. These gases had such small molecules that they escaped from the Earth's .gravitational attraction into outer space. Once volcanic activity started, other gases were added as rocks decomposed and elements reacted. These gases included water vapour, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, methane and nitrogen. As the temperature dropped still further, water vapour condensed to form rivers, lakes and oceans.

When plants appeared, 3500 million years ago, they formed oxygen from water and carbon dioxide by photosynthesis. At the same time, plants used up the oxygen during respiration reforming water and carbon dioxide. Flammable gases such as hydrogen, methane and hydrogen sulphide burnt in this oxygen forming water, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide. In time, animals evolved and used the oxygen for respiration. This further helped to keep a balance between the production and removal of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The composition of the atmosphere has remained more or less constant for the last 500 million years. The main constituents in dry air are nitrogen (about 4/5ths), oxygen (about 1/5th) and argon (about 1%) with traces of other noble gases and carbon dioxide.

The carbon cycle also helps to maintain the composition of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide and water vapour are removed from the atmosphere by photosynthesis, but return to the atmosphere when animals and plants respire and during the combustion of carbon compounds.

During the last century, an increase in the burning of fossil fuels has led to a small but steady increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This increase in the amount and concentration of carbon dioxide has been recognised as a possible cause of global warming, although the evidence is far from conclusive. The composition of the oceans, like that of the atmosphere, is also more or less constant. In this case there is a balance between the input of dissolved salts in river water from the weathering of rocks and the removal of dissolved salts by processes such as: the formation of shells by marine organisms, crystallization of salt from sea water in hot countries, the deposition of sea-floor sediments.

WORD fORMATION

2. Form nouns from these words and translate them:

to form, to melt, to exist, to attract, to decompose, to condense, to evolve, to respire, to breathe, to compose, to concentrate, to crystallize, to expose, to absorb, to react, to contain, to maintain.

 

3. In the text find equivalents to the phrases:

-  расплавленная порода;

- слишком тонкий слой для выживания;

- водяные пары конденсируются, образуя реки, озера и океаны;

- круговорот углерода помогает поддерживать состав атмосферы;

- постоянное увеличение количества углекислого газа в атмосфере;

- выветривание скальных пород;

- появляется напряжение, которое приводит к трещине в скале;

- лед плавится и проникает глубже в скалу;

- полевой шпат медленно реагирует с водой и образует глину.

 

4. Translate the following words and phrases:

constitute, constituting, constituents;

approximate, approximately, an approximation;

melt, melting, melting of the ice; molten metal;

vapour, evaporate, evaporating, latent heat of evaporation;

condense, condensing, condensation of a gas, condenser;

earth, earthquakes, earthlings;

long, length, longitude, long waves, longitudinal waves, transverse waves.

 

5. Find the words from a – r which have opposite meaning to 1-17:

 

1. long, 2. high, 3. wide, 4. shallow, 5. to melt, 6. to evaporate, 7. to heat,

8. to destroy, 9. to accelerate, 10. to attract, 11. to start, 12. to multiply,

13. to add, 14. to understand, 15. to allow, 16. visible, 17. rapid.

 

a) slow,  b) to forbid, c) invisible (non-visible), d) to misunderstand,

e) to build, f) to finish, g) to divide, h) to repel, i) to condense, j) to subtract,

k) deep, l) narrow, m) short, n) low, o) to cool, p) to decelerate, r) to crystallize.

 

TALKING POINT

6. Discuss in pairs:

· the atmosphere of the Earth while it was still forming;

· the reason gases escaped into outer space;

· the formation of rivers, lakes and oceans;

· the importance of plants’ appearance on the Earth;

· the way  the evolution of animals influenced the atmosphere;

· the cause of a steady increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere during the last century;

·  the reason for the water composition of the oceans being constant.

 

VOCABULARY STUDY

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