Essay and Critical Thinking Questions. 1. Define and distinguish between life expectancy and life span

Comprehension and Application Essay Questions

We recommend that you follow either our guidelines for "Answering Essay and Critical Thinking Questions," or those provided by your instructor, when preparing your response to these questions. Your answers to these kinds of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in this chapter.

 

1. Define and distinguish between life expectancy and life span. Also identify factors that influence life expectancy.

2. Explain whether old age is a relatively differentiated or undifferentiated period in life-span development.

3. Compare and contrast microbiological and macrobiological theories of aging.

4. Summarize the physical changes that occur in late adulthood with respect to the brain, sensory capacities, circulatory and respiratory systems, and sexuality.

5. Indicate and explain at least three chronic disorders that affect the health of older adults.

6. What do the robust oldest old reveal about conventional views of late adulthood?

7. Explain the rationale for providing options and teaching coping skills to residents of nursing homes.

8. Evaluate whether health care providers treat older adults better or worse than other develop­mental age groups such as middle-aged or young adults.

9. Discuss the role of exercise, nutrition, and weight in the health of elderly adults.

10. Explain and evaluate the controversy regarding vitamins and aging.

 

Chapter 19 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

Summary

 

1.0 Images of Life-Span Development: Facing Retirement

 

This vignette portrays the concerns and issues arising for individuals who inevitably face retirement during late adulthood. It is challenging to weigh the pros and cons of continuing to work versus taking an early retirement.

 

2.0 Cognitive Functioning in Older Adults

 

The Debate about Intellectual Decline in Late Adulthood. Investigators continue to debate the relationship between aging and intelligence. Wechsler argues that intelligence declines, whereas Horn argues that crystallized intelligence (i.e., accumulated information and verbal skills) increases and fluid intelligence (i.e., abstract reasoning) declines. Others such as Baltes and Schaie argue that there are no declines at all. This debate is fueled by the method for collecting the data: cross-sectional studies show decline—a cohort effect, whereas longitudinal studies show no decline. Further studies will have to carefully consider the definitions and measures of intelligence.

 

Speed of Processing, Memory, and Problem Solving. The evidence now clearly indicates that speed of processing does slow down with increasing age; however, the slowdown is not always accompanied by decrements in performance on everyday tasks such as typing. Experience may compensate for slower processing times. Memory shows some declines but not for everyday or familiar items. Problem solving with abstract problems shows some decline; however, older adults are as good or even better when the problems concern real life applications.

 

Education, Work, and Health. These three factors influence cognitive functioning by older adults. Older adults who have more education or acquire more education during late adulthood have better cognitive skills and are thus improving intelligence scores and cognitive functioning. This trend is likely to continue. Successive generations have also had work experiences that entail greater emphases on cognitively oriented labor. Health also affects cognitive function. Older adults in better health have higher intelligence scores, and those who exercise can actually increase their cognitive abilities by doing so.

 

Terminal Drop. Some investigators hypothesize that a person's death can be predicted by watching their cognitive abilities. According to the terminal drop hypothesis, cognitive functioning drops off dramatically sometime in the five years preceding death. This hypothesis receives support from studies of vocabulary, but not studies for numerical facility and perceptual speed.

 

Training Cognitive Skills. Some of the decline in cognitive abilities such as spatial orientation and reasoning can be reduced or eliminated by training. Memory skills are improved through the use of mnemonics such as the method of loci, organizing material to be remembered, and chunking. The cognitive training research helps researchers better understand the cognitive mechanisms of old age.

 

Wisdom. Wisdom refers to experience with real world events, insight into their causes, and an ability to provide solutions to real world problems. Only about 5 percent of the samples tested gave wise answers to life-planning problems and those 5 percent were spread equally among the periods of early, middle, and late adulthood. Many developmentalists believe that wisdom increases in late adulthood.

 

Cognitive Mechanics and Cognitive Pragmatics. Paul Baltes distinguishes between cognitive mechanics and pragmatics. Cognitive mechanics refers to physical features of the brain that are measured in terms of the speed and accuracy of processing. In contrast, cognitive pragmatics refers to functions of the brain that are measured in terms of reading and writing skills, and language comprehension. Age-related declines are more likely for the cognitive mechanics than the cognitive pragmatics.

 

3.0 Work and Retirement

 

Work. Fewer adults over 65 are working full-time than ever before; however, there are increases in the number who are working part-time. The kinds of jobs older workers usually have involve unskilled labor or clerical and sales skills. More men than women have part-time jobs and more women are working in jobs requiring college educations. Some individuals continue a life of strong productivity throughout late adulthood.

 

Retirement in the United States and Other Countries. The retirement option is a late twentieth century phenomenon. The United States has extended the mandatory retirement age upward, and efforts have been made to reduce age discrimination in work-related circumstances. At the same time that the United States has moved toward increasing the age for retirement, many European companies have lowered it.

 

Phases of Retirement. Robert Atchley suggested that adults go through seven phases of retirement. The phases start at the remote phase, when retirement is not an issue, and end at the termination phase where failing health prevents self-sufficiency and autonomy in daily affairs. The five intervening stages are near, honeymoon, disenchantment, reorientation, and stability. There is no particular timing or sequencing of these seven stages because individuals retire at different times and for different reasons.

 

Those Who Adjust Best to Retirement. People who are healthy, have secure incomes, have better educations enjoy their life before they quit work, remain active, and have good support systems seem to enjoy their retirement the most. Choice and self-determination are important factors in both work and retirement.

 

4.0 The Mental Health of Older Adults

 

The Nature of Mental Health in Older Adults. Mental health encompasses both the absence of mental illness and an ability to cope with life's issues in positive ways. At least 10 percent of older adults have mental health problems sufficient to need professional help.

 

Depression. Major depression, a mood disorder, is the most common mental health ailment and is called the common cold of mental illness. Symptoms include lack of appetite, deep sadness, listlessness, lack of motivation, and general lack of good health. Severe depression can lead to suicide, which is more common in males who live alone, have recently lost a spouse, and are in poor health.

 

Anxiety. Recent surveys indicate that anxiety disorders are a more common problem than depression for the elderly.

 

Alzheimer's Disease. Alzheimer's disease, an irreversible brain disorder, is accompanied by losses in language, memory, and reasoning skills, and will eventually lead to physical decline. Although associated with diet, smoking, stress, head injury, and thyroid problems, the causes of Alzheimer's disease are not yet known. To date researchers have suggested it may have a genetic link, may be due to plaques accumulating in the brain, and may be related to deficiencies in acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter thought to be linked to memory ability. Although no cures exist for Alzheimer's disease, researchers are evaluating special living conditions and family support systems as treatments.

 

Fear of Victimization and Crime. Some of the physical decline and limitations that characterize development in late adulthood contribute to a sense of vulnerability and fear among older adults. Almost one-fourth of older adults say they have a basic fear of being the victim of a crime.

 

Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Older Adults. People over 65 are underrepresented on the client lists of mental health practitioners. Barriers to good mental health for older persons mostly revolve around the attitudes of mental health professionals. Psychotherapists are less likely to want to see older clients for a variety of reasons centered mostly about their stereotypes of older people. Treatments that increase an older person's sense of control, provide opportunities to talk with a professional, help them discover meaning in their life, and teach them appropriate coping skills have been shown to be effective. Psychologists must be encouraged to treat older adults, who, in turn, must be convinced that they can benefit from treatment. In addition, mental health care must be affordable.

 

5.0 Contemporary Concerns

 

Sociocultural Worlds of Development 19.1: Work and Retirement in Japan, the United States, England, and France. When asked about preferred retirement age, individuals from France, England, and the United States offer ages lower than workers from Japan. Such cross-cultural studies reveal differences in attitudes and values associated with work.

 

Perspectives on Parenting and Education 19.1: Improving Older Adults' Attitudes toward Computers. Learning to use computers represents one domain in which older adults can receive training of their cognitive skills. Only 1 percent of the individuals over 65 use a computer even though older adults can acquire a wide range of computer skills.

 

Life-Span Practical Knowledge 19.1: The 36-HourDay. This book is a guide for families who care for persons with Alzheimer's and related diseases.

 

Life-Span Health and Well-Being: Trends in the Mental Health Care of Older Adults. Margaret Gatz is a mental health and aging expert concerned with trends in the mental health services for older adults, In particular, she has identified a lack of coordination or cooperation among components of the mental health system. This problem is an important one because we have an increasing number of individuals who live to old age and will require mental health services.

 

Key terms

 

1.0 Images of Life-Span Development: facing Retirement

retirement

 

2.0 Cognitive Functioning in Older Adults

crystallized intelligence

fluid intelligence

speed of processing information

terminal drop hypothesis

mnemonics method of loci

chunking

wisdom

 

3.0 Work and Retirement

Age Discrimination Act

remote phase

near phase

honeymoon phase

disenchantment phase

reorientation phase s

tability phase

termination phase

 

4 0 The Menial Health of Older Adults

mental health

major depression

anxiety disorder

Alzheimer's disease

acetylcholine

THA (грудная аорта - ?)

victimization

YAVISes

QUOIDs

 

 

5.0 Contemporary Concerns

computer skills

menial health services

 

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