Music of the Carpathians.

The three peoples who live in the Carpathian region – Boykys, Hutsulys and Lemkïs – possess distinct musics influenced by their pastoral and agrarian economy. The most common genres are solo songs, performed in a parlando rubato style; group songs are performed in unison. Melodies often consist of microtonal descending lines, with a glissando at the end of the stanza; they are similar to shepherds’ tunes played on the sopilka or drymba.

Goekannya are solo songs used to exchange messages between shepherds, in a style similar to yodelling. These are found in the foothills of the Carpathians and also in parts of Slovakia and Romania. Another widespread genre of this region is the recitative-like holosinnya (lament) for the dead. They were once found throughout Ukraine and are associated with the long, chanted epic chronicles (oprïshkov and gayduk) which recount the deeds of historical liberators of Ukraine, and contemporary unusual events in the people's lives.

The music of Hutsulys is greatly influenced by the kolomïyka couplet (with lines of 4+4+6 syllables), particularly the slow protyazhnïy songs. Boykys and Hutsulys also have rapid tunes of the kolomïyka-type, which provide the basis for thousands of short texts of an epigrammatic character. They are performed solo with instrumental accompaniment, including troïstï muzyki ensembles at weddings and during leisure-time activities. A characteristic mode of the Hutsulys has a lowered third and sharpened fourth and seventh degrees, and is known as the ‘Hutsuly mode’ (ex.5). Hutsuly vocal music may also be pentatonic. Ukrainian Lemkïs, who live in the extreme west of the country, have musics that have characteristically swift tempos and are based on dance rhythms.

Ukraine, §II: Traditional music

Epics.

(i) Dumy.

A genre of Ukrainian performed epic poetry, dumy are mainly found in central and eastern regions. They have recitative-like, declamatory melodies, not arranged in stanzas, often accompanied by the kobza, bandura or lira. Large-scale works, which can total more than 300 lines or more of poetry, are linked to the epics of old Kiev, the byliny and Slovo o polko Igoreve (‘The lay of Igor's campaign’).

Dumy are first mentioned in the annals of the Polish chronicler S. Sarnitski (1567), and were first written down in 1693 as Kozak Holota (Cossack Holota). Some 50 tales, in a large number of variants, have been documented, which were composed by soldiers in Cossack campaigns and later were cultivated by professional players who specialized in playing the kobza and lira. Many of these performers were blind and were formed into guilds.

To gain recognition as players of the kobza and lira, musicians had to spend three to six years studying under a master of the guild. During this time they would learn the epic repertory, study the dumy melodies, gain proficiency in playing the instruments, learn Levian (the language of the guild) and the guild's etiquette, and pass an examination, known as vizvilka or otklinshchini. The schools and guilds, which were organized on a territorial basis and protected the rights of the musicians, existed until the beginning of the 20th century. Outstanding performers of dumy include O. Veresay, A. Shut, M. Kravchenko, G. Goncharenko, I. Skubiy, M. Dubina, E. Movchan, G. Tkachenko and A. Hrebin.

The lines of dumy are not equisyllabic, extending over 6–16–18 syllables grouped together in irregular declamatory groups (ustupy). A performance begins with a rhetorical exclamation, ‘oy’ or ‘hey’ sung to a descending musical phrase, known as zaplachka (‘weeping’). This phrase contains the basic motif that is varied by the kobza or lira throughout the performance. A characteristic feature of traditional performance is the ornamented cadences performed at the end of each ustupy. Motifs in the texts often are embellished with rhyming figures of speech (e.g. dumaye-hadaye, plache-rydaye) and phrases such as nevolya turets'kaya (‘Turkish captivity’) or slava kozats'ka (‘Cossack glory’), and conclude with a ‘glory’ section, slava ne umre, ne polyazhe, bude slava slavnaya pomezh kozkami, pomezh druz'yami, pomezh rytsaryami (‘let not glory die, let it not perish, let there be resplendent glory among Cossacks, among friends, among knights’).

(ii) Other traditions.

In addition to the dumy, traditions of epic performance in Ukraine included the Kievan byliny (after the collapse of the Kievan state, 882–1054, the performers of byliny migrated north), ‘historical’ songs, ballads and spivanki-khroniki (‘sung chronicles’). These ‘chronicles’ took the form of performed short stanzas of epic poetry. They were performed in both urban and rural contexts, assimilating many regional styles, in particular urban kant melodies.

The earliest records, both texts and music, of historical songs date from the late 17th century (Hoy na hori zhentsi zhnut, ‘Hoy, the Reapers are Reaping on the Hill’, and Oy bida, bida tiy chaytsi nebozi, ‘Oh Woe, Woe Poor Lapwing’). The text of the ballad Dunayu, Dunayu, chemu smuten techesh? (‘Danube, Danube, Why do you Flow so Sadly?’) was recorded in the grammar book of the Czech scholar Jan Blagoslav (1550–60). Large cycles of songs in rhymed syllabic verse about national heroes, such as Morozenko, Nechaye and Khmel'nitsky, have survived in manuscripts dating from the 19th and 20th centuries.

During the 17th and 18th centuries Cossacks, members of the lower middle class and those in training for the priesthood were taught singing, alongside other subjects, in ‘schools of the brotherhood’ set up in important urban centres (for example those in Lvov, founded 1585, Kiev, 1615, and Lutsk, 1617). These schools introduced elements of written tradition and the major-minor system into epic performance. Historical songs and ballads have melodies in march rhythms that reflect underlying harmonic progressions and cadences in which a leading note resolves onto the tonic.

The growing importance of written traditions in the growth of the romance during the 18th and 19th centuries was a result of interaction between traditional and urban musics. Especially popular romances include Yikhav kozak za Dunay (‘The Cossack Went beyond the Danube’), text by S. Klimovsky, Chorniï brovy, kariï ochi (‘Black Brows, Brown Eyes’), text by K. Dumitrashko, and Stoit' hora visokaya (‘There Stands a High Mountain’), text by L. Glibov.

Ukraine, §II: Traditional music

Research.

The first written records of Ukrainian traditional songs and instrumental melodies were set down in the 17th and 18th centuries in publications such as M. Dilets'ky's Gramatyka muzykal'na (The grammar of music; 1675), the Bohohlasnik (Word of God) of the Pochayeyev monastery (1790), V. Trutovsky's four-volume Sobraniye russkikh prostïkh pesen s notami (A collection of simple Russian songs with notation; 1776–95) and Sobraniye narodnïkh russkikh pesen s ikh golosami (A collection of Russian songs with their vocal parts) by N. L'vov and I. Prach (1790). During the 19th and into the 20th century scholars started to produce work which concentrated on regional traditions and specific genres. They include: Vaclav from Oleska and K. Lipinsky, M. Lysenko, A. Rubets, O. Kolberg, S. Lyudkevych and I. Rozdol's'sky, A. Konoshchenko, F. Kolessa, K. Kvitka, L. Yashchenko, A. Humenyuk, Z. Vasylenko, V. Goshovs'ky, O. Pravdyuk and A. Ivanis'ky.

Important institutions which have been responsible for the collection and publication of traditional musics are: the south-western division of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society (Kiev, 1873–6), the Studyroom of Musical Ethnography at the Historical and Philological section of the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (1922–32). The Institute of Folklore in Kiev (now the Institute of Art History, Folklore and Ethnology) was founded in 1936. In addition to amassing a large archive of recordings it has published collections of texts and music.

Ukraine, §II: Traditional music

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Collections

K. Lipinski: Muzyka do piesni polskich i russkikh ludu galitsyskiego [Music to the songs of the Polish and Russian people of Galicia] (Lemberg, 1833)

M.V. Lysenko: Ukraïns'ki narodni pisni [Ukrainian folksongs] (Kiev, 1868–1906); rev. in Zibrannya tvoriv, xv–xviii (1953–8)

A. Rubets: 216 narodnïkh ukrainskikh napevov [216 Ukrainian folk melodies] (Moscow, 1872, 2/1882)

O. Kolberg: Pokucie: obraz etnograficzny [Ethnographic sketch of Pokucie] (Kraków, 1882–8/R)

O. Kolberg: Chełmskie: obraz etnograficzny [Ethnographic sketch of Chełmskie] (Kraków, 1890–91/R)

O. Kolberg: Przemyskie: zarys etnograficzny (Kraków, 1891/R)

A. Khredorovnich, A. Konoshchenko and B. Arsen: Ukraïns'ki pis'ni z notamï [Ukrainian songs with music] (Odessa, 1900–04)

Y. Rozdol's'ky and S. Lyudkevich: Halyts'ko-rus'ki narodni mel'odiyi (Lemberg, 1906–8)

O. Kolberg: Wołyń obrzędy, melodye, pieş'ni [Rituals, melodies, songs], ed. J. Tretyak (Kraków, 1907/R)

V.M. Hnatyuk, Y. Rozdol's'ky and F. Kolessa: Hayivky (Lemberg, 1909) [with Ger. summary]

F.M. Kolessa: Melodiï ukraïns'kikh narodnykh dum [Tunes of Ukrainian historical chants] (Lemberg, 1910–13, 2/1969)

K. Kvitka: Narodni melodiï z holosu Lesi Ukraïnky [Folksongs from the voice of Lesya Ukrayinka] (Kiev, 1917–18, enlarged 2/1973 by S.Y. Hrytza and O.J. Dey, 3/1977)

K. Kvitka: Ukraïns'ki narodni melodiï [Ukranian folksongs] (Kiev, 1922)

D. Revuts'ky: Zoloti klyuchi (Kiev, 1926–9, 2/1964)

B.P. Kirdan, ed.: Ukrainskiye narodnïye dumï (Moscow, 1962, enlarged 2/1972 by V.M. Gatsak)

H. Tansyura: Pisni Yavdokhy Zuyikhy, ed. V.A. Yusvenko and M.T. Yatzenko (Kiev, 1965)

V.L. Goshovsky: Ukrainskiye pesni Zakarpat'ya [Ukrainian songs of Transcarpathia] (Moscow, 1968)

O.A. Pravdyuk and M.M. Shubravs'ka: Vesillya (Kiev, 1970)

O.I. Dey and S.Y. Hrytsa, eds.: Spivanky-khroniky (Kiev, 1972)

M.M. Shubravs'ka and H.J. Ivanyc'ky: Vesilnipisni: u dvokh knyhakh (Kiev, 1982)

S. Hrytza, ed.: Muzychniy fol'klor z Polissya v sapysach F. Kolessy ta K. Moshyns'koho (Kiev,1995)

Books and articles

P.P. Sokal'sky: Russkaya narodnaya muzïka, Velikorusskaya i Malorusskaya, v yey stroyeni melodicheskom i ritmicheskom [Russian folk music, Great Russian and Little Russian in its melodic and rhythmic construction] (Khar'kiv, 1888; Ukrainian trans., 2/1959)

F.M. Kolessa: Rytmika ukrayins'kykh narodnykh pisen' [The rhythm of Ukrainian folksongs] (Lemberg, 1906–7)

F.M. Kolessa: ‘Über den melodischen und rhythmischen Aufbau der ukrainischen (kleinrussischen) rezitierenden Gesänge, der sogenannten “Kosakenlieder”’, IMSCR: III Vienna 1909, 276

F.M. Kolessa: ‘Das ukrainische Volkslied, sein melodischer und rhythmischer Aufbau’, Österreichische Monatsschrift für den Orient, xlii (1916), 218

F.M. Kolessa: Pro genezu ukrayins'kykh narodnykh dum [On the origin of the Ukrainian folk epics] (Lwów, 1921)

F.M. Kolessa: Narodni pisni z Halyts'koï Lemkivshchyny [Folksongs from west Galicia, Lemky country] (Lwów, 1929)

F.M. Kolessa: ‘Narodni pisni z Pidkarpats'koï Rusi’ [Folksongs from Subcarpathian Ruthenia], Naukoviy zbirnyk tovarystva ‘Prosvita’ v Uzhgorodi, xiii–xiv (1938), 49–149

R. Harasymchuk: Tantse hutsulskiye (L'viv, 1939)

Yu. Kostyuk: Ukrayins'ki narodni pisni Pryashivs'koho krayu (Bratislava, 1958)

M.O. Hrinchenko: Vybrane, ed. M.M. Hordiychuk (Kiev, 1959)

Z.I. Vasylenko, ed.: Zakarpatski narodni pisni (Kiev, 1962)

L.I. Yashchenko: Ukraïns'ke narodne bahatoholossya (Kiev, 1962)

M.M. Hordiychuk, ed.: Ukraïns'ke narodne bahatoholossya: zbirkny pisen' (Kiev, 1963)

Yu. Tsimbora: Ukrayins'ki narodni pisni Skhiddnoyi Slovachchyny (Prešov, 1963)

K. Vertkov, G. Blagodatov and E. Yazovitskaya, eds.: Atlas muzïkal'nïkh instrumentov narodov SSSR [Atlas of the musical instruments of the peoples of the USSR] (Moscow, 1963, 2/1975 with 4 discs)

S. Mierczyński, ed.: Muzyka Huculszczyzny [Music of the Hucuły region] (Kraków, 1965)

A.I. Humenyuk: Ukraïns'ki narodni muzychni instrumenty [Ukrainian folk musical instruments] (Kiev,1967)

F.M. Kolessa: Fol'klorystychni pratsi [Works on folklore], ed. V.A. Yuzvenko (Kiev, 1970)

F.M. Kolessa: Muzykoznavchi pratsi [Musicological works], ed. S.Y. Hrytsa (Kiev, 1970)

V.L. Goshovsky: U istokov narodnoy muzïki slavyan [The sources of Slavonic folk music] (Moscow, 1971)

K.L. Kvitka: Izbrannïye trudï [Selected works], ed. V.L. Goshkovsky (Moscow, 1971–3)

S.Y. Hrytsa: Melos ukrayins'koï narodnoï ėpiky (Kiev, 1979, enlarged 2/1990 as Ukrainskaya pesennaya epika)

A.I. Ivanyc'kyj: Ukrayins'ka narodna muzychna tvorchist' (Kiev, 1990)

Musicae Aes Et Scientia. Naukovyi Visnyk, Vypusk 6 [Scholarly Herald, Volume 6], Natzional'na Akademiya Ukrainy [National Music Academy of Ukraine], Kyiv, 1999

Ukulele [ukelele]

(from Hawaiian: ‘leaping flea’).

A small guitar-like instrument. It is derived from the virtually identical machete da braça (see fig.1) brought to the Hawaiian (then the Sandwich) Islands by immigrants from Madeira. There is no string instrument native to Hawaii other than the ’ūkēkē, a mouth bow. Three Portuguese instrument makers arrived in 1879: Manuel Nunes, who opened the first shop in 1880, and his associates Augusto Dias and José do Espirito Santo, who opened their own shops in 1884 and 1888 respectively. The instrument rose swiftly to popularity among the native population: in 1886 ukuleles were used to accompany hula dancers at King Kalakaua’s jubilee celebration, and the Hawaiian Annual of the same year reported that ‘of late they have taken to the banjo and that hideous small Portuguese instrument now called the “taro-patch fiddle”’. The ‘taro-patch fiddle’ is a large ukulele which appears to be derived from the machête da rajao.

Although a US tour by the Hawaiian Glee Club in 1901 included ukulele accompaniments, and a Los Angeles publisher, R.W. Hefflefinger, was advertising ‘a self-instructor for the ukulele or Hawaiian guitar and taro-patch’ by 1914, the ukulele first truly came to national prominence during the Panama-Pacific Exposition of 1915 in San Francisco. According to the official history of the exposition published in 1917, ‘people were about ready for a new fad in popular music at the time of the Exposition and the sweet voices of the Hawaiians raised in those haunting minor melodies you heard at the Hawaiian Building … were enough to start a musical vogue.’ In the Hawaiian music fad that swept across the United States, lasting into the 1930s, the ukulele was at the forefront. The small portable size and light weight, combined with a simple tuning and undemanding technique, were all factors in the ready acceptance of the ukulele for the accompaniment of popular song. Tin Pan Alley songwriters published dozens of novelty songs that mentioned the ukulele in the titles or lyrics. A flood of instruction books, mostly published outside Hawaii, appeared in response to heightened interest. American guitar manufacturers, including Martin, Gibson and Weissenborn, offered variously sized models; later entrants to the market included Lyons & Healy, Regal, and Harmony, all of Chicago. The Kamaka Ukulele Co., founded in 1916, remains the sole mass production operation in Hawaii; independent instrument makers also cater to serious performers.

Numerous entertainers have been associated with the ukulele as virtuoso performers; many have written instructional books as well. Hawaiian players include Ernest Kaai (1881–1962), active from the 1910s to the 30s; Jesse Kalima (1920–80), active from the 1940s to the 60s; and Herb Ohta [Ohta-San] (b 1934), who has released several dozen recordings since 1964. In mainland America exponents include Cliff Edwards [‘Ukulele Ike’] (1895–1972); Roy Smeck (1900–94); May Singhi Breen (d 1970); Arthur Godfrey (1903–83), whose television show in the 1950s sparked a revival of interest; and ‘Tiny Tim’ (Herbert Khaury; 1925–96). The fashion for the ukulele also spread to Europe, where it was adopted by stars of British music hall; one of the most successful entertainers of the 1930s and 40s, George Formby (1904–61) (see fig.3), featured the banjulele: a hybrid instrument combining a banjo body with a ukulele fingerboard, stringing and tuning. In the 1990s a new generation of virtuosos has brought renewed attention to the ukulele in Hawaii, foremost among them Troy Fernandez and Israel Kamakawiwo’ole (1959–97).

There are four sizes of ukulele: soprano or standard (46–53 cm in length, with 12 to 17 frets), ‘concert’ (c60 cm; up to 19 frets), tenor (c70 cm, 18 to 22 frets) and baritone (c80 cm, up to 22 frets). Instruments with four strings predominate. The tuning is re-entrant and spans a major 6th, although absolute pitch is not regarded as important: the basic tuning of g'–c'–e'–a' may be raised or lowered to enable the player to accompany in a key that is comfortable for the singer’s voice and avoids awkward chord patterns. The different sizes are used to provide variety of timbre and register. On the tenor and baritone resonance is often enhanced by doubling (or even tripling) the courses, and tuning the doubled strings an octave apart. All four sizes are played predominantly with a strummed chordal style, although the soprano ukulele has also become a virtuoso melody instrument, starting with the work of Jesse Kalima in the late 1950s.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H.H. Roberts: Ancient Hawiian Music (Honolulu, 1926/R)

J.H. Felix, L. Nunes and P.F. Senecal: The ’Ukulele: a Portuguese Gift to Hawaii (Honolulu, 1980)

G. Gruhn and W. Carter: Acoustic Guitars and other Fretted Instruments: a Photographic History (San Francisco, 1993)

A. Tsumera: Extraordinary Ukuleles: the Tsumura Collection from Japan, Honolulu Academy of Arts, 8 Sept–3 Oct 1993 (Honolulu, 1993) [exhibition catalogue]

J. Beloff: The Ukulele: a Visual History (San Francisco, 1997)

JAY SCOTT ODELL/AMY K. STILLMAN

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