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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Musical traditions of main ethnic groups.
Since Zambia emerged only with the advent of colonial rule, it is understandable that its cultural and stylistic divisions expand into neighbouring countries: Angola, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Prior to colonial rule, the vast territory was the crossroads for successive migrations and trading connections. Trade stimulated the emergence of powerful centralized states such as the Lozi in the west, Cewa (Chewa) in the east, Bemba in the north and the Mwata Kazembe in the Luapula valley near Lake Mweru. (i) Bemba-Ushi and related peoples. Among the Bemba-Ushi peoples in the Northern Province and adjacent areas there are long-established musical genres that include nfunkutu and ndelema dance-songs, mupukumo drinking songs, ishimi story-telling and the more recent kalela dance (Mitchell, 1956). Centralized political structures in this culture area have produced musics associated with traditional rulers, such as the royal cinkumbi drums of the Luunda of Mwata Kazembe near Lake Mweru. Professional musicians in the service of the political hierarchy, called ingomba (Bemba and Ushi) and abafwalwa (Luunda of Mwata Kazembe) (Mapoma, 1974), maintain duties including ‘praising chiefs and the members of the royal family, cheering up a chief, inciting chiefs into taking action and spying’ (Mapoma, 1985, p.6). South of the Luunda is the area of the Lala, in the Serenje District. Tracey’s recordings include fwanda-fwanda dance-songs accompanied by akanono (conical-shaped drums), cimbulunge and fwanda-fwanda. He also recorded chendende dance-songs with drums, sticks and rattles, and other genres. In a study with Leonard Kombe, Jones analysed an older version of the icila dance among the Lala (Jones and Kombe, 1952). The Tumbuka people, concentrated in the area of Lundazi in Eastern province, practise healing ceremonies and spirit possession. The Tumbuka are also known for the music and dance genre called mitungu, performed at beer parties or marriage celebrations, accompanied by gourds filled with small stones, struck on the ground in rhythmic patterns such as khwere khwechere, while participants sing. (ii) Nyanja-Cewa cluster. Contemporary Cewa society continues to be marked by its ‘nerve centre’, the masked secret association usually called gule wa nkulu (‘big dance’), or, between initiates, nyau. The nyau includes anthropomorphic and zoomorphic masked characters, each assigned specific dance movements. The zoomorphic structures made from scaffolding of twigs and husks of maize are called nyau yolemba (‘mask that draws circles on the ground’), referring to the spatial layout of dance movements. Other masks include: (a) kasinja with head cover of loose net, guinea fowl and chicken feathers, and short skirt made of torn bark, embodying the spirit of the deceased; (b) kang’wing’wi, characterized by high voices and fierce behaviour; (c) nkhalamba (‘old man’); (d) makanja, masked stilt-dancer; (e) cakayamoto, mask with strings of bark set on fire during the dance (Yoshida, 1993). The Nsenga are related linguistically to the Cewa, but are musically quite different. Their two-part singing style displays chains of 4ths and 5ths, not necessarily parallel, but in a structurally determined order (see the song Therekantalo of the mbanda dance in Kubik, Theory, 1994). Many songs end with the Nsenga ‘harmonic cliché’ (see ex.1). Tracey recorded Nsenga topical songs and an 11-note kalimba lamellophone with a fan-shaped board and external resonator in 1957. Mensah mentions several traditions the Nsenga share with their neighbours (1971, ‘Performing Arts’, p.78), such as mashawe spirit-possession dances and mitungu. In easternmost Chipata, the Nsenga practise chitelela, a dance genre similar to girls’ initiation dances, but intended for much younger girls, involving women who accompany with hand-clapping and two drums. (iii) Ila-Tonga cluster. Tonga music is well known owing to Tracey’s 1957 recording efforts of the so-called Valley Tonga, i.e. the Tonga who settled in the basin of the Zambezi river before their homeland was inundated after the completion of the Kariba Dam (see H. and P. Tracey, 1959). Much Tonga music was linked to annual agricultural cycles, such as tunes played for harvest on side-blown reed flutes (fig.4), in addition to pounding, canoe-launching and work-songs, including the muzemu dance with three milupa membranophones, mulai double basket rattles, silimba 12-note gourd-resonated xylophone and namalwa friction drum. Tracey’s recordings include the magnificent nyeele end-blown antelope-horn ensemble with 17 individual horns. Among Tracey’s documentation of the Lost Valley was a seven-drum set, ngoma dzi yawontiwe, and a four-note chikorekore xylophone played across the legs. He also recorded two lamellophones: kankowela (fan-shaped) and deza (board-shaped with shell buzzers and external resonator). The kalumbo, a one-string, braced, gourd-resonated bow includes a spider’s-web mirliton on its resonating gourd (Tracey, 1973). Some Tonga musicians are well known throughout the country. Simion Hamucemba (d 1970s) is remembered as an important Tonga guitarist. At a time when many young men went to work in Johannesburg and Salisbury, he warned against going to the cities, as in the song Cakaindilila ikunwa cakabaalilaa kuvuva (‘Drinking beer was too much so that they failed to acquire wealth’). (iv) Silozi-speaking people and their neighbours. Further up the Zambezi river, the Lozi occupy an area including a large annually inundated flood-plain. The paramount chief, known as the Litunga, presides over annual kuomboka ceremonies marked by a procession by boat (Kalaluka, 1979; Brown, 1983). At the height of the rain season, the Lozi ceremonially migrate with their cattle to the dry highland, accompanied by a display of performances and musical instruments. In 1957 Tracey recorded siyomboka dance-songs with xylophone and three milupa (membranophones), and girls’ initiation songs, morality songs, manyanga and liyala dances, and kangombio lamellophones. The silimba gourd-resonated xylophone (fig.5) varying in number of slats from nine to fourteen, has attracted repeated ethnomusicological attention, particularly regarding its manufacture and tuning patterns (Mensah, ‘Principles’, 1970; Kubik, 1988). Although known to be a Lozi instrument, silimba is also used by the neighbouring Nkoya, Mbunda, Kwangwa, Totela and Nyengo (Mensah, ‘Performing Arts’, 1971; Kubik, Theory, 1994). Lozi maoma royal drums symbolize the authority of the Litunga. Regalia is also kept by lesser chiefs in the Western and North-Western provinces of Zambia, such as lilunga (single iron bell), ndamba (scraper) and other hereditary objects documented by Malamusi and Kubik in the possession of Luchazi village headman, Kajimu Makeche (Kubik, ‘Erbstücke’, 1994). There are also itinerant Silozi-speaking musicians, such as a blind guitarist known throughout the Mongu and Senanga districts as Katiba. Until recently, Katiba performed regularly with his acoustic guitar, playing and singing for people on demand. (v) Lunda cluster. The Lunda cluster of peoples extends from the central area of the Democratic Republic of the Congo into north-western Zambia’s Mwinilunga and Kabompo districts, and includes speakers of Lunda, Kaonde and Mbwera-Ng’koya (Mbowela-Nkoya) languages. Trade routes through Katanga in pre-colonial times left their mark on the music of this zone, as did the more recent border crossings by itinerant workers to and from mining centres along the Zambian Copperbelt and in Katanga. Lunda hunters and diviners perform muta to help hunters trap or hunt animals, but it can also afflict a person with illness. In such cases, a member of an afflicted family seeks advice from a chimbanda (healer), and if the chimbanda discovers by divination that the cause of an illness is the muta spirit, then it is indicated that a family member must have died as a hunter and returned as a spirit. The chimbanda also arranges a performance of muta music and dance while administering medicines to the sick individual. The instrument used to accompany muta is a ndamba (scraper) made from a palm stalk about one metre in length. The performer rubs along a notched side, producing a loud sound. The songs are satirical, often containing jokes and personal allusions. (vi) Luvale-Cokwe cluster. During the 1970s Cokwe (Chokwe) or Luvale-speaking peoples came to the Zambian mines. Tracey recorded various types of cisanji (lamellophone), including one made entirely of vegetable materials by a Luvale-speaking musician, the ciyanda dance of the Cokwe and the ubiquitous kachacha dance of the Luvale. Kachacha was originally a ceremonial dance of the Luvale in which men and women formed circles while moving anticlockwise, accompanied by a set of up to six jingoma (drums) played by one performer in the middle of the circle. These tall drums, placed against a bar or rack constructed for this purpose (fig.8), are carefully tuned with paste attached to the centre of the drumheads. A second musician beats a time-line pattern with a stick on the wooden body of a drum. The word kachacha derives from the sound of sangu (leg rattles) worn by female dancers that produce the rhythmic sound, ‘cha cha cha’. Kachacha dates back as far as the Luvale, Cokwe, Luchazi and Mbunda can remember. The Luvale people have several ritual institutions with associated songs such as mukanda, the boys’ circumcision school performed with makishi (masks) (Tsukada, 1988; Kubik, 1993), and girls’ initiation ceremonies, litungu lya mwali (Rauter, 1991). In these contexts songs demonstrate an impressive harmonic singing style (Tsukada, 1990; Kubik, Theory, 1994). During the season of mukanda and litungu lya mwali youths of 10–25 years assemble in villages to perform the shombe dance game, particularly popular among Luvale, Cokwe and Luchazi young people. Performers form a running circle, rotating anticlockwise while clapping hands, then enter the circle, one at a time, briefly dancing before approaching a member of the opposite sex to replace them. Shombe is performed in late evenings. Those who are 20–30 years old perform shikinya, another circle dance, also in late evenings after meals. Accompanying instruments include ngoma (drum), ndamba and pairs of iron tools used for percussion. Zambia Modern developments. Colonial economic policy in the 1920s generated massive labour migration to Northern Rhodesia, notably the Copperbelt, a string of mining towns in the north. Eventually, social conditions in the mines and on European-owned farms generated reactions against exploitation and racial discrimination, culminating in political movements. After the formation of the United National Independence Party (UNIP) in 1960, the country gained independence. The tensions of the pre-independence period and the impact of mass-media technology combined to stimulate compensatory reactions with many innovations in the arts, particularly music and literature. One reaction to colonial rule was the rise of the kalela dance among the Biisa that included military-style parading (Mitchell, 1956). Jones was among the first who paid attention to such emerging traditions in Zambia (1945; 1959). In the early 1920s the introduction of Christian hymns and school music stimulated new forms of religious music, either within established churches or in separatist religious movements, such as the Emilio and Lumpa churches of the 1950s. In the field of popular dance music, Zambia became a crossroads of central and southern African styles. From the 1940s until the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) of Southern Rhodesia in 1965, exported music from South Africa and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) via mass media was a dominant factor in many urban centres. Soon after 1945 gramophones and radios became common among civil servants and mine-workers. Hollywood cinema became a regular feature in most towns and at schools, with South African music films promoting jive, makwaya (choirs) and kwela regularly shown as pre-programmes as early as the mid-1950s. The Central African Broadcasting Station (CABS) was established in 1945, and a typical programme in the 1950s included jazz and country records from the USA, jive and makwaya from South Africa, guitar recordings from Southern Rhodesia and also locally recorded music, resulting in an instant recycling of innovative trends. New urban musical forms emerging in the 1940s and 50s in South Africa soon spilled over into what became the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953–63), including Northern Rhodesia. The most important development of the late 1940s and the 50s, however, was acoustic guitar music, particularly in the mining centres of the Copperbelt, involving mine-workers from diverse ethnic groups. For this reason, the new guitar music is often called the Copperbelt or Katanga guitar style. Tracey’s recordings of 1952 and 1957 include excellent demonstrations of this style performed by Steven Tsotsi Kisumali. Returning migrant workers brought guitars to their home villages in the 1950s and 60s. When guitars were brought to Mwinilunga, Kabompo and Zambezi, their presence generated distinct Lunda, Luvale and Luchazi guitar styles, as demonstrated in Thomas Maliti’s distinctive Luchazi-style guitar playing. A specific Lunda guitar style had already developed before 1950 in the mining centres of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and some of these songs were based on the kachacha time-line. While Copperbelt guitar music was a spontaneous development in the milieu of mine workers, there were simultaneous developments within institutions controlled by Europeans, such as missions, schools and the state radio station. A key musical personality in Lusaka during the 1950s was Alick Nkhata, singer, guitarist and composer. He undertook recording trips with Tracey and was later employed by CABS, forerunner of the Zambian Broadcasting Service (ZBS), where he supervised an extensive programme of recording musical traditions throughout Zambia. The Alick Nkhata Quartet, a vocal group that set traditional songs to makwaya harmonies, became popular for humorous texts that castigated social evils of an urbanized society. In the 1960s and 70s Zambia became a haven for refugees from South Africa and Rhodesia, among them musicians and singers, including Zimbabwe-born Dorothy Masuka, who won the award as the outstanding artist at the Algiers Pan-African Cultural Festival (1969). Masuka identified with Zambian society and recorded in Cinyanja, although with a foreign accent. In her songs she joined the Zambian government’s struggle for a reversal of the urbanization trend. Zambian popular music has been dependent on electricity since the mid-1960s. In rural areas, however, a reaction took place with the rise of home-made banjos. From Tonga in the south to the Copperbelt and even in the remote north-west (Malamusi, 1984; Kubik, 1989) small groups of banjo-playing young people can be encountered alongside the roads. Home-made banjos in Zambia are constructed from paraffin tins or other metal resonators, into which a central orifice is cut on the upper side (fig.9). Three or four strings are passed over with no skin cover. The string bearer is a length of wood with the pegs attached vertically (see illustrations in Kubik, 1989). The tuning in the three-string version is usually triadic, i.e. B–G–D (top to bottom). In the 1970s and 80s soul and reggae music influenced urban groups striving to create something Zambian. Several terms were coined, such as Zamrock, but the breakthrough came at the grassroots level; kalindula, from a rural area in the north, can be played with various instruments, from common electric guitars to home-made acoustic instruments. Spokes Chola made this music popular with Mansa Radio Band. Chola received a prize in 1981 from the National Music Industry as the best rural band in Zambia. Chola, a blind man, has made many records with the Zambia Teal Record Company, and after the release of his records, kalindula spread rapidly to other parts of the country. Zambia Research. Apart from 19th-century travellers’ accounts (Livingstone, 1865; Holub, 1881), systematic musical research began in the 1930s with the efforts of Jones who worked from 1929 to 1950 as a missionary and principal at St Mark’s College, Mapanza. Some fundamentals of African music, valid in many African musical cultures, were noted by Jones using Zambian material: the principle of interlocking drum beats; the presence of a ‘multiple main beat’ and the intrinsic structure of time-line patterns, particularly the five-stroke, 12-pulse time-line common in many musical cultures of eastern and southern Zambia. Hugh Tracey, a contemporary of Jones, undertook four comprehensive recording tours to Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in 1948, 1949, 1952 and 1957. Particularly important in the coverage of various Zambian traditions are his 1957 recordings, published in the AMA Sound of Africa series. In the 1970s Atta Annan Mensah demonstrated a new approach to the analysis of Zambian musical traditions drawing on concepts such as ‘bi-musicality’ (Mensah, ‘Ndebele-Soli Bi-Musicality’, 1970). He also presented a diachronic analysis of the musical traditions of a single village (Mensah, ‘The Music of Zumaile’, 1970). Mapoma (1974) presented a detailed study of ingomba, the royal court musicians among the Bemba in Luapula and Northern provinces. He also studied musical instruments of the Lala of Serenje district and worked on the issue of Bantu migration and music history (1982). In 1971, 1973 and 1977–8 Kubik, Kayombo ka Chinyeka and Moses Yotamu conducted comprehensive fieldwork among Luchazi speakers in Kabompo District, on mukanda boys’ initiation, makisi masked dancing and visimo chantefables (Kubik, 1975; 1993). This work was continued in 1979 and in 1987 by the research team of Moya A. Malamusi, Lidiya Malamusi and Kubik. In 1990 Eva Rauter carried out an ethno-choreographic study of Luvale litungu lya mwali (girls’ initiation). A socio-musical study of mukanda among the Luvale at Chavuma was undertaken in the 1980s by Kenichi Tsukada (1988; 1990). In 1994 Tsukada analysed ‘phonaesthetic systems’ among the Luvale, in cooperation with Yotamu, studying mnemonic devices used in the teaching of drumming. Ernest Brown (1983) covered the famous Kuomboka ceremony among the Lozi of Western province, also described by Likando Kalaluka (1979). In Eastern province, Kenji Yoshida and his wife carried out extensive fieldwork in 1984–6 on the nyau masked society of the Cewa. Zambia BIBLIOGRAPHY D. and C. Livingstone: Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries; and of the Discovery of the Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa 1858–1864 (London, 1865) E. Holub: Seven Years in South Africa: Travels, Researches and Hunting Adventures between Diamond-Fields and the Zambezi, 2 vols. (London, 1881) A.M. Jones: ‘African Music: the Mganda Dance’, African Studies, iv (1945), 180–88 A.M. Jones: African Music in Northern Rhodesia and some Other Places, The Occasional Papers of the Rhodes-Livingstone Museum, iv (Manchester, 1949) A.M. Jones: ‘The Kalimba of the Lala Tribe, N. Rhodesia’, Africa, xx (1950), 324–34 A.M. Jones and L. Kombe: The Icila Dance, Old Style: a Study in African Music and Dance of the Lala Tribe of Northern Rhodesia (Roodeport, 1952) J.C. Mitchell: The Kalela Dance: Aspects of Social Relationships among Urban Africans in Northern Rhodesia, The Occasional Papers of the Rhodes-Livingstone Museum, xxvii (Manchester, 1956) A.M. Jones: Studies in African Music, 2 vols. (London, 1959) H. and P. Tracey: ‘The Lost Valley, a Broadcast Programme’, AfM, ii/4 (1959), 44 J. Blacking: ‘Patterns of Nsenga Kalimba Music’, AfM, ii (1961), 26–43 B.M. Fagan: Iron Age Cultures in Zambia, Robin Series, v (London, 1967–9) A.A. Mensah: ‘The Music of Zumaile Village, Zambia’, AfM, iv (1970), 96 A.A. Mensah: ‘Ndebele-Soli Bi-Musicality in Zambia’, Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council, ii (1970), 108–20 A.A. Mensah: ‘Principles Governing the Construction of the Silimba, a Xylophone Type Found among the Lozi of Zambia’, Review of Ethnology, iii/3 (1970), 17–24 A.A. Mensah: Music and Dance in Zambia (Ndola, Zambia, 1971) A.A. Mensah: ‘Performing Arts in Zambia, Music and Dance’, Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, xiii (1971), 67–82 Kayombo ka Chinyeka: Vihandyeka vya mana (Sayings of Wisdom), Accta Ethnologica et Linguistica xxx, Series Africana viii (Vienna, 1973) H. Tracey: Catalogue: the Sound of Africa Series (Roodeport, 1973) M.I. Mapoma: Ingomba: the Royal Musicians of the Bemba People of the Luapula and Northern Provinces of Zambia (diss., UCLA, 1974) G. Kubik: ‘Kulturelle und sprachliche Feldforschungen in Nordwest-Zambia, 1971 und 1973’, Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, xvii (1975), 87–115 D.W. Phillipson: The Later Prehistory of Eastern and Southern Africa (London, 1977) L. Kalaluka: Kuomboka: a Living Traditional Culture among the Malozi People of Zambia (Lusaka, 1979) M.I. Mapoma: Survey of Zambian Musical Instruments: Case Study: Musical Instruments of the Lala People of Serenje Districts (Lusaka, 1982) E. Brown: ‘Drums on the Water: the Kuomboka Ceremony of the Lozi of Zambia’, African Musicology, i (1983), 65–80 M.A. Malamusi: ‘The Zambian Popular Music Scene’, Jazz Research, xvi (1984), 189–98 M.I. Mapoma: ‘Music and Bantu Migration Pattern’, (1985) J. Gansemans and B. Schmidt-Wrenger, eds.: Zentralafrika: Musikgeschichte in Bildern (Leipzig, 1986) G. Kubik: ‘Nsenga/Shona Harmonic Patterns and the San Heritage in Southern Africa’, EthM, xxxii/2 (1988), 39–76 K. Tsukada: Luvale Perceptions of Mukanda in Discourse and Music (diss., Queen’s U. of Belfast, 1988) G. Kubik: ‘The Southern African Periphery: Banjo Traditions in Zambia and Malawi’, World of Music, xxxi (1989), 3–30 K. Tsukada: ‘Kukuwa and Kachacha: the Musical Classification and the Rhythmic Patterns of the Luvale in Zambia’, Peoples and Rhythms, ed. T. Sakurai (Tokyo, 1990), 29–75 K. Tsukada: ‘Variation and Unity in African Harmony: a Study of Mukanda Songs of the Luvale in Zambia’, Florilegio Musicale: Festschrift für Professor Dr. Kataoka Gido zu seinem siebzigsten Geburtstag, ed. U. Mubuchi and others (Tokyo, 1990) W. Bender: Sweet Mother: Modern African Music (Chicago, 1991) E. Rauter: Litungu lya mwali: Mädcheninitiation bei den -Luvale und verwandten Ethnien in Nordwestzambia (diss., U. of Vienna, 1991) G. Kubik: Makisi, Nyau, Mapiko: Maskentraditionen im Bantu-sprachigen Afrika (Munich, 1993) K. Yoshida: ‘Masks and Secrecy among the Chewa’, African Arts, (April 1993), 34–45 M. Yotamu: ‘Notes on Zambian LPs and 45 r.p.m. Singles (Text Transcriptions and Translations)’, deposited at the African Music Archive, U. of Mainz (Mainz, 1993) G. Kubik: ‘Erbstücke eines Kalucasi-Dorfvorstehers: Chief Kajimo Makeche’, Vergleichend-systematische Musikwissenschaft, ed. T. Hilscher and T. Antonicek (Tutzing, 1994), 297–326 G. Kubik: Theory of African Music, i (Wilhelmshaven, 1994) Zambomba (Sp.). Friction drum. See Drum, §I, 4. Zamboni, Giovanni (b Rome, 2nd half of the 17th century; d Pisa, early 18th century). Italian composer. He was noted as a virtuoso on the theorbo, lute, harpsichord, guitar, mandore and mandolin. As such Zamboni, who also seems to have been a jeweller, found employment at Pisa Cathedral. His collection of Sonate d’intavolatura di leuto op.1 was published at Lucca in 1718. A contemporary account praises him as a ‘very excellent contrapuntist’, an ability which may be seen in his two books of four-part madrigals with continuo (I-Bc); they are, however, in a conservative style, and not dramatic. Lost works include two cantatas, a sonata for two lutes, two violins and basso continuo, and a sinfonia. He may have been related to V. Zambone, a Sistine Chapel singer in 1582. BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Matei: ‘Fragmenta’, NA, xvii (1940), 72–3 ‘Der Wiener Musikalienhandel von 1700 bis 1778’, Wiener Musikwissenschaftliche Beitrage, v (1960), 100–01 CAROLYN GIANTURCO Zamboni, Giuseppe. See Zamponi, Giuseppe. Zamboni, Luigi (b Bologna, 1767; d Florence, 28 Feb 1837). Italian bass-baritone. He made his début in 1791 at Bologna in Cimarosa’s Il fanatico burlato. He sang in Naples, Venice, Parma, at La Scala and at the Teatro Argentina, Rome, where in 1816 he created Figaro in Il barbiere di Siviglia, a role which Rossini, whose father was a family friend, had written specially for him. For two seasons from 1829 he directed an Italian company at St Petersburg, performing 19 Rossini operas (and other works) in Italian, with recitatives intact. ELIZABETH FORBES Zamboni, Maria (b Peschiera, 25 July 1895; d Verona, 25 March 1976). Italian soprano. She studied at the Parma Conservatory and in Milan. Following her début in 1921 as Marguerite in Faust at Piacenza, she sang in many leading Italian houses, including La Scala from 1924 to 1931, missing only the 1928 season. In 1926 she sang Liù in the première of Turandot under Toscanini, and in 1930 created the part of Maria in Pizzetti’s Lo straniero. She was also a favourite in South America. Her repertory included the roles of Elsa and Eva, Desdemona, and Manon in the operas of both Massenet and Puccini. The latter she recorded complete in 1930. She retired in 1936, shortly after appearing at the S Carlo, Naples, in her original role of Liù and in the title role of Mario Persico’s Morenita. As heard on records, her vibrato is too prominent for comfort, but she sings with lively temperament and characterizes vividly. J.B. STEANE Zámečník, Evžen (b Frýdek-Místek, 5 Feb 1939). Czech composer and conductor. He studied the violin and composition at the Brno Conservatory (1956–61), then composition with Kapr at the Janáček Academy; his graduation piece was the one-act opera Fraška o kádi (A Farce about the Tub). Thereafter he was a pupil of Bialas at the Hochschule in Munich (1968–70) and of Dvořáček at the Prague Academy of Musical Arts (1974–9). For many years Zámečník was a violinist with the Janáček Opera and the Brno State PO. In 1982 he became founder-director of the Brno Brass Band, an ensemble for which he and other Czech composers have written numerous pieces and arrangements. From 1989 to 1994 he was dramaturge of the opera at the National Theatre in Brno (until 1991 State Theatre of Brno, 1991–93 Regional Theatre of Brno). He was president of the board of the Copyright Union Fund (1992–8), and in 1994 was appointed director of the Brno Conservatory. At first Zámečník's style gravitated towards neo-classicism; later this was extended to include atonální a modální compositional techniques. Many of his works are tributes to celebrated figures such as Stravinsky, André Breton, Pablo Casals and Janáček. Most of Zámečník's works abound with humorous combinations of ideas or expressions, not unlike concerts of the Brno Brass Band. WORKS (selective list) Stage and vocal
Instrumental
BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Linka: ‘Orchestr s trojí iniciálou B v názvu’ [The orchestra with 3 Bs in their name], OM, xv (1983), 286–7 J. Fukač: ‘Křižovatky Evžena Zámečníka’ [Zámečník's points of crossing], OM, xviii (1986), 21–5 J. Šmolík: ‘Tři otázky pro Evžena Zámečníka’ [Three questions for Zámečník], HRo, 1 (1997), 34–5 MOJMÍR SOBOTKA Zaminer, Frieder (b Kronstadt [now Braşov], Romania, 31 Oct 1927). German musicologist. He studied musicology with Thrasybulos Georgiades, Greek philology with Otto Regenbogen and philosophy with Hans Georg Gadamer at Heidelberg University (1948–54). He took the doctorate at Heidelberg in 1956 with a dissertation on the Vatican organum treatise. From 1958 to 1961 he was an assistant lecturer in the musicology department of Munich University, and subsequently, as the holder of an award from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, he concentrated on research in ancient music and contributed to the 12th edition of the Riemann Musik Lexikon. Between 1968 and 1991 he was director of the historical department of the Staatliches Institut für Musikforschung of the Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin, where he edited a comprehensive history of music theory; in 1973 he also became a lecturer in musicology at the Free University and in 1982 at the Technical University of Berlin. Among the publications he has edited are Geschichte der Musiktheorie (1984–) and Die Musik des Altertums (1989). He is principally concerned with ancient and medieval music and with the theory and terminology of music. WRITINGS Der vatikanische Organum-Traktat (Ottob. lat. 3025) (diss., U. of Heidelberg, 1956; Tutzing, 1959) with H.H. Eggebrecht: Ad organum faciendum (Mainz, 1970) ed.: Über Musiktheorie: Berlin 1970 [incl. ‘Griechische Musiktheorie und das Problem ihrer Rezeption’, 9–14] ‘Griechische Musikaufzeichnungen’, Musikalische Edition im Wandel des historischen Bewusstseins, ed. T. Georgiades (Kassel, 1971), 9–27 ‘Rhythmus und Zeitdauern-Organisation’, Zur Terminologie der Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts: Freiburg 1972, 60–68 ‘Über die Herkunft des Ausdrucks “Musik verstehen”’, Musik und Verstehen, ed. P. Faltin and H.P. Reinecke (Cologne, 1974), 314–19 ‘Konsonanzordnung und Saitenteilung bei Hippasos von Metapont’, Jb des Staatlichen Instituts für Musikforschung 1981/82, 231–40 ‘Hypate, Mese und Nete im frühgriechischen Denken’, AMw, xli (1984), 1–26 ‘Die “Tonhöhe”: zum Problem ihrer Auffassung seit der Antike’, Musik in Antike und Neuzeit, ed. M. von Albrecht (Bern, 1987), 17–29 ‘Rhythmischer Kontrapost bei Aischylos’, Das musikalische Kunstwerk: Festschrift Carl Dahlhaus, ed. H. Danuser and others (Laaber, 1988), 186–96 ‘Rhythmus und Form in Pindars 12. Pythischer Ode’, Liedstudien: Wolfgang Osthoff zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. M. Just and R. Wiesend (Tutzing, 1989), 5–30 with S. Ziegler: ‘Polyphonie médiévale et polyphonie Caucase’, Polyphonies de tradition orale: Royaumont 1990, 69–84 ‘Jean Pierre Burette (1665–1747) und die Erforschung der antiken Musik im Rahmen der Pariser Inschriften-Akademie’, Akademie und Musik: Erscheinungsweisen und Wirkungen des Akademiegedankens in Kultur- und Musikgesichte … : Festschrift für Werner Braun, ed. W. Frobenius and others (Saarbrücken, 1993), 289–99 ‘Mousiki: zur frühen Wort- und Begriffsgeschichte’, Sprache und Musik, ed. A. Riethmüller (Laaber, 1997) ‘Von der Musenkunst zur Musik’, Perspektiven einer Geschichte des abendländischen Hörens, ed. W. Gratzer (Laaber, 1997), 45–57 HANS HEINRICH EGGEBRECHT/KARL-HEINZ SCHLAGER Zammāra. See Mizmār. Zampieri, Mara (b Padua, 24 May 1941). Italian soprano. She studied in Padua and made her début in 1972 at Pavia as Nedda. After singing at various Italian theatres, in 1978 she appeared at La Scala in three Verdi roles: Elisabeth de Valois (Don Carlos), Amelia (Un ballo in maschera) and Amalia (I masnadieri). Having made her British début in 1983 at Newcastle as Tosca, she sang the role at Covent Garden a year later. Her repertory also includes Donizetti’s ‘Tudor trilogy’, Norma, Maddalena (Andrea Chénier), Zandonai’s Francesca, Puccini’s Minnie and Manon Lescaut and Katerina Izmaylova, which she sang at La Scala in 1992. Verdi’s Lady Macbeth (which she has recorded memorably with Sinopoli), Odabella (Attila), Elvira (Ernani), Leonora (Il trovatore), Aida and Amelia (Simon Boccanegra) are among her finest roles. The dramatic intensity of Zampieri’s performances and the magnetism of her appearance compensate for a slightly raw edge to her tone. ELIZABETH FORBES Zampogna (It.; Sp. zampoña). See Bagpipe. See also Panpipes {South American, Andea} {2}. Zamponi [Zamboni, Samponi], Giuseppe [Gioseffo] (b Rome, 1600–10; d Brussels, Feb 1662). Italian composer. On 1 November 1629 he succeeded Paolo Tarditi (who probably taught him) as organist of S Giacomo degli Spagnoli, Rome. He left there at the end of May 1638. In February 1638 he appears in the household register of Cardinal Pier Maria Borghese as ‘aiutante di camera’. The cardinal died in June 1642 and nothing more is known of Zamponi’s movements until 1648, when, at the request of Archduke Léopold-Guillaume, governor-general of the Low Countries, he went to Brussels with a number of other Italian musicians. He brought with him a mass composed in homage to the archduke, and he was named director of chamber music. In a document dated 1661 he is described as director of music to the Elector of Cologne. He enjoyed considerable success, both financially and in terms of renown. He owned two houses in Brussels, and his wealth was great enough to provoke a legal dispute among his inheritors lasting several years. Huygens, writing to a correspondent in Austria in 1657, asked if his correspondent had ‘something distinguished … either by Sr. Zamponi or by someone else you esteem’. Zamponi’s Ulisse all’isola di Circe, the first opera to be performed in the southern Netherlands, was presented at court in honour of the marriage of Philip IV of Spain and Maria Anna of Austria. With the Ballet du monde of Giambattista Balbi performed between the acts, Ulisse was staged by the highly praised G.B. Angelini. Two further performances took place in 1655 at the specific request of Queen Christina of Sweden, who was paying a state visit to Brussels. The opera is in the Venetian style. Three chamber sonatas by Zamponi are extant. Evans singled out the extended opening Adagio of one sonata (at GB-DRc) and referred to Zamponi’s noteworthy powers of expression. WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY EitnerQ Vander StraetenMPB, i; ii J. Chifflet: Aula sacra principum Belgii (Antwerp, 1650) W.J.A. Jonckbloet and J.P.N. Land, eds.: Musique et musiciens au XVIIe siècle (Leiden, 1882) R. Haas: ‘Gioseppe Zamponis “Ulisse nell’isola di Circe”’, ZMw, iii (1920–21), 385–405; v (1922–3), 63 only H. Liebrecht: ‘Les origines de l’opéra à Bruxelles’, Le flambeau (31 Dec 1921) A. van der Linden: ‘Un fragment d’inventaire musical du XVIIe siècle’, RBM, iii (1949), 43–4 C. van den Borren: Geschiedenis van de muziek in de Nederlanden, ii (Antwerp, 1951), 59ff P. Evans: ‘Seventeenth-Century Chamber Music Manuscripts at Durham’, ML, xxxvi (1955), 205–23 MARY ARMSTRONG FERRARD/PHILIPPE VENDRIX Zanata [Zanatta, Zannatta], Domenico (b Verona, c1665; d Verona, 5 Aug 1748). Italian composer. In 1724 he and his son, Girolamo, entered the competition for the post of maestro di cappella of Verona Cathedral. Girolamo was awarded the appointment but conceded it to his father out of respect and took instead the job of teaching ‘figured song’ at the Scuola degli Accoliti in Verona. In 1746 Domenico was able to hand over the post to his son, who held the position until his death in 1770. Zanata’s music displays a sound contrapuntal technique and a devotion to a cappella vocal polyphony; at the same time, he adheres to the concertante forms of the period, and his work is notable for its expressive power, particularly the cantatas, in which pregnant melodic lines are combined with rich harmony. The variety of rhythmic patterns and the frequent changes from duple to triple time are noteworthy. WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY MGG1 (G. Vecchi); SchmitzG A. Spagnolo: Le scuole accolitali in Verona(Verona, 1904) C. Bologna: ‘Dalla musica post-rinascimentale ai giorni nostri’, La musica a Verona, ed. P. Brugnoli (Verona, 1976), 217–422 GUIDO SALVETTI Zancanaro, Giorgio (b Verona, 9 May 1939). Italian baritone. He studied in Verona and after winning the 1970 Voci Verdiane competition made his début at the Teatro Nuovo, Milan, as Riccardo (I puritani). He appeared at Parma, Bologna, Florence and Venice, then launched an international career singing Luna at Hamburg (1977). He made his Covent Garden début in 1978 as Miller (Luisa Miller), returning as Enrico Ashton, Escamillo, Posa, Gérard (Andrea Chénier), Ezio (Attila) and Anckarstroem (Un ballo in maschera). He sang Ford at La Scala (1981), and made his Metropolitan début (1982) as Anckarstroem, subsequently appearing there as Luna. His repertory also includes Albert (Werther), Scarpia and many Verdi roles, notably Nabucco, Macbeth, Germont and Iago, which he sang at Verona in 1994. His many recordings include Luna, Carlo (La forza del destino), Germont, Rigoletto, Montfort (Les vêpres siciliennes), William Tell and Scarpia. Zancanaro has a powerful voice, particularly strong in the upper register, and though not a particularly subtle artist he can portray a character on stage with impressive conviction. ELIZABETH FORBES Zanchi, Liberale (b Treviso, c1570; d after 1621). Italian composer. The place and approximate date of his birth can be deduced from the title-page and preface of his first book of five-part madrigals (1595), which he described as ‘my first works’. He was recorded in 1595 and 1596 as Kapellmeister and organist to the Archbishop of Salzburg, and he was chamber organist to the Emperor Rudolf II in Prague from 1 November 1596 until the emperor’s death in 1612. He did not continue as a musician under Rudolf's successor, Matthias, but the imperial court still owed him a large sum of money in 1621. Apart from the madrigals of 1595 Zanchi’s works have not survived complete, which is probably a major reason why they have not yet been properly studied. The technique of cori spezzati seems to have had a considerable influence on Zanchi; he may have modelled his polychoral writing on that of Jakob Handl, who was active in Prague until 1591. His canzonas were among the seminal pieces in 17th-century Austrian instrumental music. WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Smijers: ‘Die kaiserliche Hofmusik-Kapelle von 1543–1619’, SMw, vi (1919), 139–86; ix (1922), 43–81 H. Spies: ‘Die Tonkunst in Salzburg in der Regierungszeit des Fürsten und Erzbischofs Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau (1587–1612)’, Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Salzburger Landeskunde, lxxi (1931), 1–64; lxxii (1932), 65–136 F.W. Riedel: Das Musikarchiv im Minoritenkonvent zu Wien, CaM, i (Kassel, 1963), 133 HELLMUT FEDERHOFER Zänckl, Narcissus. See Zängel, Narcissus. Zander, Johan David (b 1753; d Stockholm, 21 Feb 1796). Swedish conductor, violinist, viola player and composer. His father, the bassoonist and oboist Johan David Zander (1714–74), moved from Germany to Stockholm as a member of the orchestra of Prince Adolphus Frederik, who acceded to the Swedish throne in 1743. The younger Johan joined the orchestra as a violinist in 1772, rose to third Konzertmeister in 1787 and deputy Konzertmeister the next year, a post he held until his death. As a solo violinist, viola player and conductor he frequently appeared in concerts in Stockholm. He taught the violin at the Swedish Royal Academy of Music from 1785 and at the Opera school from 1786; he became a member of the Academy in 1786. After his first published works, the two violin solos (1781), Zander composed theatre music in which he emulated the style of French opéra comique and German Singspiel, inserting familiar Swedish national tunes. The combination proved quite popular; from 1784 until his death he composed for and served as musical director of Carl Stenborg’s theatre, which under him enjoyed its greatest success. WORKS all in MS in S-St unless otherwise stated Stage all first performed in Stockholm
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BIBLIOGRAPHY GroveO(A. Lönn) [incl. further bibliography] P. Vretblad: Konsertlivet i Stockholm under 1700-talet [Concert life in Stockholm in the 1700s] (Stockholm, 1918) T. Norlind and E. Trobäck: Kungliga Hovkapellets historia 1526–1926 (Stockholm, 1926) L. Hedwall: Den svenska symfonin (Stockholm, 1983) L. Hedwall: ‘Johan David Zander and the Swedish Opéra-comique’, Gustavian Opera: an Interdisciplinary Reader in Swedish Opera, Dance and Theatre 1771–1809, ed. I. Mattsson (Stockholm, 1991), 365–74 L. Hedwall: ‘The Stenborg Stage’, Gustav III and the Swedish Stage: Opera, Theatre and Other Foibles: Essays in Honor of Hans Åstrand, ed. B. van Boer (Lewiston, NY, 1993), 103–16 ANDERS LÖNN/LENNART HEDWALL Zandonai, Riccardo (b Sacco di Rovereto, Trentino, 30 May 1883; d Pesaro, 5 June 1944). Italian composer. He studied at Rovereto, and with Mascagni at the Liceo Musicale, Pesaro (1898–1901). In 1907 Boito introduced him to Giulio Ricordi, who launched him as an opera composer: after the success of Il grillo del focolare the Ricordis regarded him as Puccini’s natural successor, and even sent him to Spain to ‘collect material’ for Conchita. After a troubled period during World War I, when the Austrian government condemned him for his irredentist activities, Zandonai married the singer Tarquinia Tarquini and settled in Pesaro, where he directed the Conservatory (formerly the Liceo Musicale), 1940–43. Between the wars he was widely active as a conductor. Although an uneven, often rather superficial composer, Zandonai was the most important of those Italians of his generation who, unlike Pizzetti, Malipiero and even Alfano, remained content to modify rather than reject the operatic tradition of Mascagni and Puccini. Not that he was ever a mere imitator of these older composers: even in the unpretentious, homely II grillo del focolare the orchestral part is more ‘symphonically’ conceived than in most Mascagni, though neither here nor in his later operas could Zandonai match his teacher’s melodic spontaneity. In Conchita the true nature of his talent was becoming clear: the piquant harmonies and colourful orchestration, with judicious borrowings from Strauss and Debussy comparable with those in La fanciulla del West, seemed bold to Italian audiences of the time; yet the result is an eclectic amalgam, whose greatest virtue is its strong sense of atmosphere and the picturesque, with many Spanish touches. The prelude and ensuing ‘Notte a Siviglia’ that open Act 3 are especially effective, and there is abundant vitality in the ensemble scenes, notably the first scene of all. By comparison, the more passionate music can seem self-conscious and overemphatic, though the Carmen-like heroine is forcefully portrayed. Similar qualities and defects recur in Francesca da Rimini, which has had many productions internationally and remains Zandonai’s most popular work in Italy. In parts of Acts 1 and 3 (especially those dominated by female voices) his flair for the colourful and decorative is seen at its very best, clearly stimulated by the rich imagery of D’Annunzio’s words. Archaic, modal outlines are backed up by ‘antique’ touches of instrumentation (including a lute), the results having at times an unforgettable radiance and charm, as in the beautiful ensemble sung by Francesca and off-stage female chorus at her first entry. But just as D’Annunzio’s opulent poetry of the senses went hand in hand with something more barbarous and sinister, so Zandonai also indulged, especially in the Act 2 battle scene, in orgies of crude orchestral rhetoric. Moreover, in the more dramatic solo music, even more than in the comparable parts of Conchita, he too often seems to have been affecting more emotion than he felt. Zandonai’s postwar operas on the whole show little fundamental advance on Francesca, despite incidental new departures: Giulietta e Romeo is an especially direct, though inferior, successor to the earlier work. In I cavalieri di Ekebù, however, the strange libretto served both as a safeguard against the worst sort of rhetoric and as an intermittent stimulus to break new ground: the ‘theatre band’ music in Act 2 even introduces stark parallel minor 2nds, minor 9ths etc. comparable with those in Puccini’s Turandot. Such harmonic explorations were not developed further in Zandonai’s last operas, which show signs, rather, of a return to simplicity: Giuliano, with its Oedipus-like plot and its ‘mystical’ prologue and epilogue, adapts the manner of Francesca in more subdued and contemplative terms; while La farsa amorosa attempts, not altogether convincingly, to revive something of the spirit (rather than the letter) of opera buffa. Zandonai’s instrumental music, which has usually had less than its due share of attention, includes several works inspired by his native Trentino. In descriptive pieces like these his picturesque sense could achieve a purer expression than is usually possible in a dramatic context, though the variegated orchestration cannot disguise the slenderness of some of the ideas. However, the Concerto andaluso, whose quasi-Spanish material is presented in neatly neo-Scarlattian terms (enhanced by a prominent harpsichord in the small orchestra), has abundant melodic life: this is probably Zandonai’s best instrumental composition, embodying in a light, compact form the neo-classical spirit evident in La farsa amorosa. WORKS (selective list) Theatre
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BIBLIOGRAPHY DEUMM (F. Bussi) GroveO (J.C.G. Waterhouse) [incl. further bibliography] A. d’Angeli: ‘Francesca da Rimini di R. Zandonai’, Cronaca musicale, xviii (1914), 136–55 G. Bastianelli: ‘Riccardo Zandonai’, Il convegno [Milan], ii (1921), 522–32; repr. in NRMI, vi (1972), 409–18 B. Ziliotto: Francesca da Rimini: guida attraverso il poema e la musica (Milan, 1923) ‘Riccardo Zandonai’, Bollettino bibliografico musicale, vi/12 (Milan, 1931), 5–21 A. Gasco: Da Cimarosa a Strawinsky (Rome, 1939) G. Cetrangolo: Lo ‘Stabat mater’ di Jacopone da Todi e il prologo del ‘Giuliano’ di Arturo Rossato, nei riferimenti delle rispettive composizioni di G. Rossini e R. Zandonai (Pesaro, 1941) V. Bonajuti Tarquini: Riccardo Zandonai nel ricordo dei suoi intimi (Milan, 1951) G. Barblan, R. Mariani and others: A Riccardo Zandonai (Trent, 1952) A. Damerini: ‘Le musiche non teatrali di Zandonai’, La Scala, no.59 (1954), 17–20 [also articles by A. Toni, 9–11, and R. Paoli, 13–15] T. Zandonai Tarquini: Da ‘Via del paradiso’ al n.1 (ricordi vicini e lontani) (Rovereto, 1955) B. Becherini: ‘Dal teatro alla produzione sinfonica di Riccardo Zandonai’, Immagini esotiche nella musica italiana, Chigiana, xiv (1957), 87–99 J.C.G. Waterhouse: The Emergence of Modern Italian Music (up to 1940) (diss., U. of Oxford, 1968), 523–8 ‘Zandonai, Riccardo’, Rizzoli-Ricordi: Enciclopedia della musica (Milan, 1972) A. Porter: ‘Musical Events: Wagnerismo’, The New Yorker (31 March 1973); repr. in A. Porter: A Musical Season (New York and London, 1974), 209–13 [on Francesca da Rimini] B. Cagnoli: Riccardo Zandonai (Trent, 1978, 2/1983) Riccardo Zandonai: Rovereto 1983 F. Nicolodi: Musica e musicisti nel ventennio facista (Fiesole, 1984) Quaderni zandonaiani (1987–9) J. Maehder: ‘The Origins of Italian Literaturoper: Guglielmo Ratcliff, La figlia di Iorio, Parisina and Francesca da Rimini’, Reading Opera, ed. A. Groos and R. Parker (Princeton, NJ, 1988), 92–128 A. Bassi: Riccardo Zandonai (Milan, 1989) Riccardo Zandonai nel 50° della morte: Rovereto 1994 K.C. Dreyden: Riccardo Zandonai (Frankfurt, 1999) JOHN C.G. WATERHOUSE/R Zandt, Marie van. See Van Zandt, Marie. |
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