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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Zani de Ferranti, Marco Aurelio
(b Bologna, 23 Dec 1801; d Pisa, 28 Nov 1878). Italian guitar virtuoso and composer. When he was 12, he heard Paganini and took up music, learning the violin, which he abandoned for the guitar four years later. In 1820 he went to Paris, where he gave guitar lessons, had some compositions published and gave his first concert, but attracted little notice. He then became librarian to Senator Miatleu in St Petersburg, and later secretary to Prince Naryshkin; he gave concerts and more of his compositions were published, but in 1824 was expelled because of his political involvement. He subsequently lived in Denmark, Hamburg, Brussels, Paris and London, and in 1827 settled in Brussels. There he laboriously perfected what he called the art of ‘sustaining notes on the guitar’. He made his improved technique public in 1832, to considerable acclaim; in 1834, when he was championed by Fétis, his career began to flourish, and he was appointed honorary guitarist to the King. Paganini declared him superior to all other guitarists he had heard, and he toured the Netherlands, England and France with considerable success. Later his interests turned to literature: he published poetry, became a Dante scholar and started reviewing concerts, and in 1843 became professor of Italian at the conservatory in Brussels. He met and befriended the violinist Camillo Sivori and in 1846 went to the USA as his agent; he stayed for six months, giving concerts and having some of his music published. In 1855 he toured Italy with the soprano Euphemie Wittmann, whom he married, but who died during the tour. Ferranti returned to Paris, giving solo concerts as he travelled, a practice thought hitherto to have been exclusive to Liszt. In the 1860s he gradually abandoned his concerts for ‘Dante lectures’, readings which he gave in Paris, Brussels, London and Liverpool; he also twice returned to Italy, where he died. He composed more than 100 pieces for guitar, at least 50 songs and 48 Mélodies bibliques for violin, cello and piano. He also wrote several books, among them a noted commentary on Dante. Some of his works have appeared in modern editions (see Wynberg). BIBLIOGRAPHY FétisB Quelques Articles concernant M.-A. Zani de Ferranti, premier guitariste de S.M. le Roi des Belges, ex-professeur au Conservatoire Royal de Bruxelles (Milan, c1860) F.-J. Fétis: ‘La guitare et Zani de Ferranti’, Revue musicale (1834), 27; Ger. trans., Der Gitarrefreund, xxvi (1925), 34–8 H. Berlioz: Mémoires (Paris, 1870/R; ed. and Eng. trans. by D. Cairns, 1969, 2/1970); ed. P. Citron (Paris, 1969, 2/1991)) M. Battistini: Marco Aurelio Zani de’ Ferranti, di Bologna, musicista e letterato (Bologna, 1931) R. Ferrari: Zani de Ferranti, Marco Aurelio (Modena, 1933) M. Van de Cruys: ‘Der Paganini der Gitarre: Marco Aurelio Zani de Ferranti’, Gitarre & Laute, ix (1987), no.4, pp.17–18, 37–9; no.5, pp.49–52; x (1988), no.4, pp.20–24 S. Wynberg: Marco Aurelio Zani de Ferranti: Guitarist (1801–1878) (Heidelberg, 1989) [incl. checklist of Ferranti's compositions] M. Van de Cruys: ‘Compiling the Zani de Ferranti catalogue’, Gendai Guitar Magazine, xxxi (1997), no.11, pp.36–41 [incl. complete catalogue of guitar works] MARC VAN DE CRUYS Zaninus [Çaninus] de Peraga de Padua (fl mid- to late-14th century). Italian composer. He is possibly identifiable with a nobleman of that name who died in Padua in 1374. He wrote a three-voice ballata, Se le lagrime antique, which survives in the northern Italian fragment I-ST 14 (no.3; ed. in PMFC, x, 1977, p.130). The piece shows French influence, and is probably the work referred to in sonnet no.48 of Prudenzani’s Sollazzo. BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Cattin: ‘Richerche sulla musica a Santa Giustina di Padova all’inizio del I Quattrocento: il copista Rolando di Casale’, AnMc, vii (1964–77), 17–41 F.A. Gallo: ‘La trattatistica musicale’, Storia della cultura veneta, ii, ed. G. Folena (Vicenza, 1976), 469–76, esp. 474 A. Hallmark: ‘Some Evidence for French Influence in Northern Italy, c1400’, Studies in the Performance of Late Mediaeval Music: New York 1981, 193–225 KURT VON FISCHER Zannatta, Domenico. See Zanata, Domenico. Zannetti [Zanetti]. Italian family of printers. They were active in the 16th and 17th centuries and three of them printed music in Rome. An early member of the family, Bartholomeo de Zanetti da Bressa, printed Pier Maria Bonini’s treatise Acutissime observationes at Florence in 1520. His name gives the only indication of the probable origin of the family. The first music printer in the family was Luigi Zannetti, who worked at Rome between 1602 and 1606 and printed mostly sacred music by Agostino Agazzari, Antonio Cifra and their contemporaries. Bartolomeo, probably his son, appears to have taken over at once, for he began to produce music in 1607. Between 1618 and 1621 he was printing at Orvieto, where he produced two music books, but he later returned to Rome. His output was much larger than his father’s and included music by most contemporary Roman composers and sacred music by other Italians. He published a series of anthologies of sacred works edited by Fabio Constantini (RISM 16143, 16161, 16183 and 16201, the last at Orvieto) and the first edition of Frescobaldi’s Ricercari et canzoni franzese (1615). After his return to Rome, he published only one volume of music, by Tullio Cima. In 1638 Francescho Zannetti published four volumes of music by Domenico Mazzocchi. He was probably related to Bartolomeo. STANLEY BOORMAN Zannetti [Zanetti], Francesco (b Volterra, 27 March 1737; d Perugia, 31 Jan 1788). Italian composer. He studied composition with G.C.M. Clari in Pisa from 1750 to 1754, at the same time performing as a violinist and tenor in Lucca. In 1757 his training in opera began at the Conservatorio della Pietà dei Turchini in Naples, but he abandoned his studies after two years. His subsequent admission to the Accademia Filarmonica in Bologna (1760) indicates his preference for sacred and instrumental music over opera. From 1756 to 1762 he was maestro di cappella at Volterra and from 1762 to 1788 at Perugia Cathedral, where he composed a great deal of music, including many of his operas; he also worked as music director at the Teatro del Pavone and the Teatro dell’Aquila and occasionally acted as impresario at the Pavone in the 1770s, for works including Sacchini’s Alessandro nell’Indie, Anfossi’s Quinto Fabio and L’incognita perseguitata and Mysliveček’s Adriano in Siria. Generally he adopted a strict, but elegant style, attentive to the innovations introduced by Gluck and completely freed from the Neapolitan school. As well as operas he composed cantatas and oratorios, unfortunately almost all now lost, and various instrumental works. In the instrumental pieces he attempted to fuse sonata form with a galant style, and there are clear influences from such composers as Nardini, Boccherini and Viotti. WORKS Operas
Oratorios
Other vocal
Instrumental
BIBLIOGRAPHY DEUMM(M. Pascale) G. Giustiniani: Francesco Zannetti: musicista italiano del XVIII secolo (diss., U. of Florence, 1972) O. Landmann: Die Dresdner italienische Oper zwischen Hasse und Weber (Dresden,1976), 44, 80 B. Brumana: ‘Per una storia dell’oratorio musicale a Perugia nei secoli XVII e XVIII’, Esercizi arte musica e spettacolo, iii (1980), 97–167 B. Brumana and M. Pascale: ‘Il teatro musicale a Perugia nel settecento: una cronologia dai libretti’, Esercizi arte musica e spettacolo, vi (1983), 71–134 B. Brumana and G. Ciliberti: Musica e musicisti nella cattedrale di S. Lorenzo a Perugia (XIV-XVIII secolo) (Florence, 1991) G. Ciliberti: Il teatro degli accademici illuminati di Città di Castello (Florence, 1995) GALLIANO CILIBERTI Zannetti, Gasparo. See Zanetti, Gasparo. Zannettini, Antonio. See Giannettini, Antonio. Zannoni [Zanoni], Angelo Maria (b Venice; fl 1710–32). Italian bass. He was for some years in the service of the Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. His first known appearances were in Padua in 1710 and 1712, and in 1713 he sang at Ferrara in Albinoni’s Lucio Vero. From December 1714 Zannoni spent five months in London, making his début at the King’s Theatre as Argante in a revival of Handel’s Rinaldo on 30 December. He appeared in the pasticcios Lucio Vero (26 February) and Arminio (26 March) and at two concerts in the Great Room (in James Street) on 9 and 16 May. At the first, for his benefit, he also played the bass viol. In 1716 he sang at Venice in two operas by Vivaldi and one by Chelleri, and in June and July 1718 in Orlandini’s Lucio Papirio at Bologna and Padua. He was again at Venice in 1719–21, 1726 and 1732; in all he appeared in nine operas there. He is said to have worked in Germany, Vienna and France. There are three caricatures of him by A.M. Zanetti in the Cini collection (I-Vgc). WINTON DEAN Zanobi, Luigi. See Zenobi, Luigi. Zanotti, Camillo [Ioannotus, Camillus; Cannatij, Camillus; Canotij, Camillus] (b Cesena, c1545; d Prague, 4 Feb 1591). Italian composer. The title-pages of some of his publications and a letter from Emperor Rudolf II of Habsburg indicate that he was from Cesena, and this is confirmed by various later historians. A document in the Archivio Capitolare, Cesena, states that he was maestro di cappella at Cesena Cathedral though, as the document is undated, it is not clear when he held this position or for how long. He became vice-Kapellmeister of Rudolf II's household on 1 August 1586 (as stated by Sartori, not on 31 August 1586 or 1587 as variously reported); details of the travelling expenses he received in 1587 indicate that he was called to the imperial court ‘from the Netherlands’. He remained in Prague until his death. The only other evidence of his journeys is his reference, in the dedication of his third book of madrigals, to a stay in Conegliano, in the Veneto. He was much esteemed, to judge from his monthly salary of 25 guilders (which was above the usual level) and from the gratuities he received in 1587 and 1588 from the emperor, mainly in return for the dedication of madrigals and masses. His richly ornamented secular music belongs to the late 16th-century madrigalian tradition; the sacred music is characterized by a marked tonal orientation. His reputation is most evident from the number of his publications and the frequent reprinting of his works in anthologies. WORKS published in Venice unless otherwise stated
BIBLIOGRAPHY MGG1 (C. Sartori) B. Manzonius: Caesenae Chronologia (Pisa, 1643), 131 J.B. Braschius: Memoriae Caesenates sacrae et profanae per secula distributae (Rome, 1738), 362 A. Smijers: ‘Die kaiserliche Hofmusik-Kapelle von 1543–1619’, SMw, vi (1919), 139–86, esp. 147 W. Pass: Musik und Musiker am Hof Maximilians II. (Tutzing, 1980) A. and G. Vannoni: Camillo Zanotti (Florence, forthcoming) WALTER PASS/GIULIA VANNONI Zanotti, Giovanni (Calisto Andrea) (b Bologna, 14 Oct 1738; d Bologna, 1 Nov 1817). Italian composer. Nephew of Francesco Maria Zanotti, a noted Bolognese scientist and scholar, he studied with Martini in the late 1750s. Admitted to the Accademia Filarmonica in 1758, he was principe in 1764 and 1765. He became assistant maestro di cappella at S Petronio in 1761 and from 1774 to 1789 was maestro di cappella there. Although Zanotti composed sacred music almost exclusively, letters to Martini from F.A. Barberi and Paolo Sabbatini of Modena refer to the great success of his only opera L’olimpiade, performed there during Carnival. In 1774 and 1778 Zanotti was in Venice, employed by Count Carlo di Colloredo. When the Liceo Filarmonico was established in 1804, Zanotti was appointed piano professor, a post he held until 1812. Burney heard a performance of Zanotti’s Dixit at the annual concert of the Accademia Filarmonica in 1770 (a concert also attended by Mozart) and praised it extravagantly: There were all the marks of an original and cultivated genius. … The accompaniments were judicious, the ritornels always expressing something, the melody was new and full of taste, and the whole was put together with great judgment, and even learning. In short, I have very seldom in my life received greater pleasure from music than this performance afforded me. Examination of Zanotti’s music does not corroborate Burney’s enthusiastic judgment; he was a skilful, though conservative, composer in the style of the late 18th-century Bolognese school derived from Martini. Almost all his extant music is sacred, written for chorus, soloists and orchestra. Most of his works are in manuscript in the Bologna Conservatory library and the archives of S Petronio (others in I-Baf, Bca, Fc, MAC). (BurneyFI; MGG1 (G. Vecchi) [with detailed list of works]) HOWARD BROFSKY Zaparth, Jean. See Japart, Jean. Zapf, Helmut (b Rauschengesees, Thuringia, 4 March 1956). German composer. After studying sacred music (1974–9) and working as a choirmaster and organist in Thuringia, he became a masterclass student of Katzer at the Akademie der Künste der DDR (1982–6). In 1986 he met the improvisatory musician Johannes Bauer, who was to have a lasting influence. From that time, improvisation of a lively, spontaneous and physical nature became common in his works, as well as spatial thinking; this is particularly notable in Wandlungen (1986), the Dreiklang compositions (1990–92) and strumento dell arco (1994). Traditional materials, such as forms of the Christian liturgy, and quotes from the music of Bach and Schoenberg, appear in his works as if refracted, presented so that the elementary characteristics of the material express something new. His awards include the Hanns Eisler Prize (1986), the Valentino Bucchi Prize (1987) and the Arts Advancement Prize of the Akademie der Künste, Berlin (1993). WORKS (selective list)
EVELYN HANSEN Zaphelius [Zapfelius, Zapfl], Matthias [Matthäus] (b Styria, before 1550; d after 1572). Austrian singer and composer. In 1560 he enrolled at the University of Vienna and, until his voice broke in 1562, served as a chorister in the Emperor Ferdinand I's court chapel at Vienna. Later he studied under the Jesuits in the same city and in 1565 the payment of his bursary was extended for two more years. Immediately after completing his studies he probably joined the Graz court chapel of Archduke Karl II, where he served as tenor and master of the choristers. The Graz court accounts list him for the last time in these capacities in 1572. He was a minor master in the later Spanish-Netherlandish style, as is shown by his eight motets in collections (RISM 15682, 15684, 15685; 1 ed. in TM, xix, 1972) mainly of works composed by musicians at the Habsburg court. His three-section motet for five voices, Veni Redemptor gentium (ed. in TM, v, 1971) uses the plainsong melody as the cantus firmus; the counterpoint is dense and the melodic quality of the voices is notable. BIBLIOGRAPHY H. Federhofer: Musikpflege und Musiker am Grazer Habsburgerhof der Erzherzöge Karl und Ferdinand von Innerösterreich (1564–1619) (Mainz, 1967), 141–2 HELLMUT FEDERHOFER Zappa, Francesco (b Milan; fl 1763–88). Italian cellist and composer. The dedication of his six trios for two violins and bass (London, 1765) shows that he had given the Duke of York, the dedicatee, music lessons in Italy (the duke had been in Italy from late November 1763 to mid-1764). By 1767, the year of the duke’s death, he had entered his service as maestro di musica, as shown by the title-page of his trio sonatas op.2. He then apparently took up residence in The Hague as a music master. He was still there in 1788, according to the place and date of a manuscript Quartetto concertante (in D-Bsb). He had a reputation among his contemporaries as a virtuoso and he toured Germany in 1771, playing in Danzig and, on 22 September, in Frankfurt. According to Mendel, he made another concert tour of Germany in 1781 (though this may be an error for 1771). Zappa’s writing is lyrical, but tends towards a seriousness of manner in which the galant elements are tempered by a Classical dignity. His works with obbligato cello demonstrate an easy familiarity with thumb position fingerings, slurred staccato bowings and idiomatic string crossing patterns. WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY EitnerQ GerberL MCL E. van der Straeten: History of the Violoncello (London, 1915/R) O. Tajetti: ‘Francesco Zappa: violoncellista e compositore milanese’, Antiquae musicae italicae studiosi, iii/6 (1987), 9–12 GUIDO SALVETTI/VALERIE WALDEN Zappa, Frank [Francis] (Vincent) (b Baltimore, 21 Dec 1940; d Laurel Canyon, Los Angeles, 4 Dec 1993). American composer, rock musician and guitarist. His family moved to California in 1950, where Zappa played the drums and guitar in high-school bands with, among others, Don Van Vliet (later to become Captain Beefheart). He studied briefly at Chaffey College, Alta Loma, but left to write music for B-movies. In 1964 he formed his band the Mothers of Invention (originally the Soul Giants); the personnel changed frequently and Zappa disbanded the group in the 1970s to work with musicians selected for particular projects, including Ian Underwood (keyboards, saxophones, brass, guitar etc.), Ruth Underwood (percussion), George Duke (keyboards and trombone), Aynsley Dunbar (drums), Sugar Cane Harris (organ, electric violin and vocals) and Jean-Luc Ponty (violin). The Mothers of Invention’s first release was Freak Out! (Verve, 1966), which savagely parodied both corporate America and hippy counter-culture in such songs as ‘Hungry Freaks, Daddy’ and ‘Who are the Brain Police?’, culminating in ‘The Return of the Son of Monster Magnet’, an extended improvisation using avant-garde techniques. It was followed by Absolutely Free (Verve, 1967), the experimental orchestral album Lumpy Gravy (Verve, 1968), the parody of the Beatles’ Sergeant Pepper in We’re Only in it for the Money (Verve, 1968), and the doo-wop pastiches of Cruising with Ruben & The Jets (Verve, 1968). They developed a cult following on both sides of the Atlantic, having made their UK début in 1967, and Zappa was releasing on average two albums a year, a level he was to sustain throughout his career. He toured extensively, with a stage act involving props and interaction with the audience, and developed a system of hand signals which enabled him to initiate rapid switches of style, rhythm and tempo, lending a spontaneity to what were otherwise tightly-controlled structures. In 1970 Zappa performed 200 Motels (U.A., 1971) for rock band and orchestra in Los Angeles at a contemporary music festival organized by Zubin Mehta, and the following year made a film of it: this is one of a number of Zappa large-scale multi-media projects. Zappa’s music is eclectic and draws freely on the popular music of the 1950s and early 60s, embracing rhythm and blues, rock and roll, doo-wop, middle-of-the-road ballads, the world of Hollywood film music and of TV advertisements, treating them as objets trouvés; at the same time it also draws on the soundworlds of Stravinsky, Ives, Varèse and Stockhausen, creating multi-layered textures and employing montage techniques and abrupt stylistic juxtapositions which have the effect of Brechtian alienation and Dadaist confrontation, as in Burnt Weeny Sandwich (Reprise, 1970) and Over-Nite Sensation (Discreet, 1973). Zappa wanted his music to achieve the autonomy associated with high art music while subversively working from within the popular music industry. In the 1980s this was accentuated by the increasing esteem in which Zappa was held as a serious composer, so that his performances and two albums with the London SO (LSO: Zappa, 1983–7) and with the Ensemble Intercontemporain (The Perfect Stranger, 1984) appear at the same time as his bizarre synthesizer recreations of pieces by his 18th-century namesake (1984). He set up his own record company (Barking Pumpkin) and, after lawsuits, gained control over the master-tapes of his albums released in the 1960s and 1970s by MGM/Verve. In his final decade he worked at his home studio, using a Synclavier synthesizer to create such albums as Jazz From Hell (Capitol, 1986), and to remix much of his earlier work and, in effect, to re-create, through intercutting, a body of previously unissued recordings. His last public appearance was in Frankfurt in 1992 at a concert of his works by the Ensemble Modern, recorded as The Yellow Shark (Barking Pumpkin, 1993), a few months before his death. The first posthumous album appeared in 1994, Civilization: Phaze III, on which Zappa had been working since the late 1980s. Zappa’s importance lies less in any obvious influence on rock music than in the way in which his music embraces American popular culture while simultaneously maintaining a critical distance from it, and in the way in which his musical critique at the same time constitutes a political and social critique. He saw the music business as concerned with the manipulation of music and its consumers and dedicated to profit. His own material is always calculatedly secondhand, disposable and ephemeral; his approach to structuring it is critical, ironic and self-reflective. The result has a richness of allusion, wealth of detail and a consistency of thought reminiscent of James Joyce. The comprehensive study by Watson (1993) is part of a large and expanding interpretative literature. BIBLIOGRAPHY D. Walley: No Commercial Potential: the Saga of Frank Zappa (New York, 1980, 2/1996) F. Zappa and P. Ochiogrosso: The Real Frank Zappa Book (London, 1989) B. Miles: Frank Zappa: a Visual Documentary (London, 1993) [incl. discography] B. Watson: Frank Zappa: the Negative Dialectics of Poodle Play (London, 1993) [incl. discography and bibliography] F. Zappa and B. Miles: Frank Zappa: in his Own Words (London, 1993) R. Kostelanetz ed.: The Frank Zappa Companion (London, 1997) B. Watson: The Complete Guide to the Music of Frank Zappa (London, 1998) [incl. discography] MAX PADDISON Zappasorgo, Giovanni (b Treviso; fl 1571–6). Italian composer. He was probably the Zappasorgo who in 1576 was listed as a singer and cornettist at Treviso Cathedral. He published two books of three-voice napolitane (Venice, 1571 and 1576) which include variants of successful texts set earlier by his contemporaries. In keeping with the tendency to create hybrid forms, he set four madrigal texts to music in a light vein and placed them prominently in his books. Most of the settings are in ternary form, and the primarily chordal textures are enlivened by syllabic declamation and occasional points of imitation; parallel 5ths are rare. BIBLIOGRAPHY EinsteinIM G.M. Monti: Le villanelle alla napoletana e l’antica lirica dialettale a Napoli (Città di Castello, 1925) G. d’Alessi: La cappella musicale del duomo di Treviso (1300–1633) (Vedelago, 1954) R.I. DeFord: ‘The Influence of the Madrigal on Canzonetta Texts of the Late Sixteenth Century’, AcM, lix (1987), 127–51 C. Assenza: ‘La trasmissione dei testi poetici per canzonetta negli ultimi decenni del secolo XVI’, RIM, xxvi (1991), 205–40 DONNA G. CARDAMONE Zaqef. Sign in Hebrew Ekphonetic notation marking a subsidiary stop within a half-verse. See also Jewish music, §III, 2(ii). Zār. Spirit possession ceremony with music. See Egypt, §II; Oman, §3(iv); Somalia; Sudan, §I; and Yemen. Zara (It.). See Zadar. Zaramella. Italian composer, probably not identifiable with Pandolfo Zallamella. Zarathustran [Zoroastrian] music. See Iran, §I, 5. Zardt, Georg. See Zarth, Georg. Zarębski, Juliusz (b Zhitomir, 28 Feb 1854; d Zhitomir, 15 Sept 1885). Polish composer and pianist. He studied at the Vienna Conservatory, graduating in 1872 with gold medals in composition (which he studied with F. Krenn) and piano (J. Dachs). In 1873 he studied at the St Petersburg Conservatory (gaining his Free Artist diploma in only three months); in 1874 he went to Rome, studying the piano for a year with Liszt, whose favourite pupil he became. On 30 January 1880 Zarębski was appointed professor of piano at the Brussels Conservatory, a post he occupied until his death. As a pianist he made his earliest public appearances in the spring of 1874, giving concerts in Odessa and Kiev; later he performed with great success in many European cities, including Rome, Naples, Constantinople, Warsaw, Paris and London. He mastered, within two months, the technique of playing the two-keyboard piano, an invention of the Mangeot brothers; he then developed a repertory for it, and gave concerts on the instrument during the Paris Exhibition of 1878 and later in London. Zarębski was the most original Polish composer of the second half of the 19th century. His piano works were influenced by Liszt, as is shown in the orchestral treatment of the piano in, for instance, the Grande polonaise op.6. He also developed some of Chopin’s methods, drawing on folk music and making creative use of some of its modal characteristics in his harmony; and he had a comprehensive command of the technical resources of the piano. His compositions are marked by great variety of colour, as in Les roses et les épines op.13, and sometimes by an emancipation of unrelated chords which marks him out as a forerunner of impressionism. Zarębski’s finest work is his Piano Quintet op.34, written in 1885. Advanced harmony, richness of colour and an enterprising use of rhythm, as well as the full exploitation of the piano and its skilful blending with the strings, combine to make it one of the most remarkable Polish chamber works of the second half of the century. Premature death from tuberculosis cut short Zarębski’s promising career. WORKS Piano for solo piano unless otherwise stated
Other works
BIBLIOGRAPHY SMP T. Strumillo: Juliusz Zarębski (Kraków, 1954, 2/1985) M. Karczyńska: Muzyka fortepianowa Juliusza Zarębskiego (diss., Jagiellonian U., Kraków, 1962) A. Nowak-Romanowicz and others, eds.: Z dziejów polskiej kultury muzycznej [From the History of Polish Musical Culture], ii (Kraków, 1966) K. Samaeva: ‘Juliusz Zarębski w Zytomierzu’, Muzyka, xxiv/2 (1979), 19–31 M. Kwiatkowska: ‘Fortepian z podwójna klawiatura i rola Juliusza Zarębskiego w jego prezentacji’ [The double reverse keyboard pianoforte and Juliusz Zarębski's role in its introduction], Muzyka, xxix/3 (1984), 51–61 ZOFIA CHECHLIŃSKA Zaremba. Belarusian and Ukrainian family of musicians. (1) Nikolay Ivanovich Zaremba (2) Vladislav Ivanovich Zaremba (3) Sigismund Vladislavovich Zaremba JENNIFER SPENCER/EDWARD GARDEN Zaremba (1) Nikolay Ivanovich Zaremba (b Vitsebsk province, 3/15 June 1821; d St Petersburg, 24 Aug/8 Sept 1879). Belarusian teacher and composer. He was a pupil of Gross and Herke and studied in Berlin with Adolf Bernhard Marx. He also attended St Petersburg University, where he had a symphony performed by the student orchestra. In 1854 he was appointed director of the choral society at the Lutheran church of St Peter and St Paul. (He was a zealous member of the Moravian Brethren.) From 1859 he taught harmony and composition at the St Petersburg School of the Russian Musical Society, and was invited to teach these subjects at the newly opened St Petersburg Conservatory in 1862. He was the first to use Russian rather than German terminology in his teaching of theory. In 1867 he succeeded Anton Rubinstein as director of the conservatory. During his four years in office he sought to raise the standards of teaching, and to draw up a syllabus in which the study of strict counterpoint should play an important part. Zaremba, like his teacher Marx, was a staunch conservative in musical matters, and was opposed to all contemporary trends in composition: Mendelssohn, whom he admired, was for him a modern composer. His classical leanings were satirized by Musorgsky in Rayok (‘The Peepshow’) (1870), where Zaremba is introduced by a quotation from Handel’s Judas Maccabaeus, and is made to declaim to an imaginary class of students, ‘the minor key is our original sin, but the major key is our sin’s redemption’. With Anton Rubinstein, he was severely critical of Tchaikovsky’s First Symphony, and refused to let it be performed in a Musical Society concert until it had been drastically revised. However, in spite of the narrowness of his views, he was a respected teacher and played a part in the education of almost a whole generation of Russian musicians. As well as Tchaikovsky, his pupils included Laroche and Solov'yov, whose music criticism V.V. Stasov considered to be ‘reactionary’. Failing health compelled him to resign from the conservatory, and in 1872 he went to western Europe. (Curiously, it was in Zaremba’s house that Musorgsky and Rimsky-Korsakov shared a rented room in 1871–2.) On Zaremba’s return to St Petersburg in 1878 he completed an oratorio, Ioann Krestitel' (‘John the Baptist’). He wrote chamber music, piano pieces and songs, but as a composer he was uninspired, and his compositions were soon forgotten. BIBLIOGRAPHY N.S. Rimsky-Korsakov: Letopis' moyey muzïkal'noy zhizni [A chronicle of my musical life] (St Petersburg, 1909, rev. 8/1980; Eng. trans., 1923, 1942/R) J. Leyda and S. Bertensson, eds.: The Musorgsky Reader (New York, 1947/R) P.A. Vul'fius, ed.: Iz istorii Leningradskoy konservatorii: materialï i dokumentï 1862–1917 [From the history of the Leningrad Conservatory: materials and documents 1862–1917] (Leningrad, 1964) D. Brown: Tchaikovsky: a Biographical and Critical Study, i (London, 1978) Zaremba (2) Vladislav Ivanovich Zaremba (b Dunayivtsï, Podilya province, 15/27 June 1833; d Kiev, 24 Oct 1902). Ukrainian composer and conductor, brother of (1) Nikolay Ivanovich Zaremba. He studied with Joseph and Anton Kocipiński at Kamyanets'-Podil's'kïy, and at the Kiev Institute, where from 1862 he taught the piano. He also made a name as a choral conductor. His most famous work is Muzïka do kobzarya, a collection of songs to words by the Ukrainian poet Shevchenko. He wrote piano music for children and songs to Polish texts, and made piano arrangements of Ukrainian folksongs. He edited Śpiewnik dla naszych dziatek (‘A songbook for our children’) and Mały Paderewski (for piano). Zaremba (3) Sigismund Vladislavovich Zaremba (b Zhytomyr, 30 May/11 June 1861; d Petrograd, 14/27 Nov 1915). Ukrainian conductor and composer, son of (2) Vladislav Ivanovich Zaremba. His first teacher was his father; he then took cello lessons with Alois and composition lessons with Kazbiryuk, and attended Kiev University. For some years he was director of the local branch of the Russian Musical Society in Voronezh; he taught in the society’s school, conducted the orchestra and organized chamber music concerts. In 1901 he settled in St Petersburg, where he took up a non-musical post, but made occasional appearances as an accompanist. His works include a Suite for string orchestra op.33, a Danse slave and a Polonaise for orchestra, a string quartet, other chamber music, piano pieces and songs. Zaremba, Eléna (b Moscow, 10 July 1957). Russian mezzo-soprano. Born into a family of singers, she joined the Bol'shoy Opera in 1984 upon graduating from the Gnesin State Institute in Moscow. She made her Western début on the 1989 Bol'shoy tour to La Scala, singing Vanya in A Life for the Tsar. Her repertory then was dominated by a typical mixture of Russian roles, ranging from Laura (The Stone Guest) and the Innkeeper (Boris Godunov) to Olga (Yevgeny Onegin) and Amelfa (The Golden Cockerel), and Western ones, including Cherubino and Lola (Cavalleria rusticana). Her first Western engagement was as Konchakovna (Prince Igor) at Covent Garden in 1990 (recorded on video), and other débuts followed: New York (Bol'shoy at the Metropolitan, 1991), Vienna Staatsoper (Ulrica, 1992) and Bregenz (Carmen, 1992). In 1991 she sang in the world première of Slonimsky's Master and Margarita in Moscow. Since moving to the West, Zaremba has widened her repertory to include such roles as Dalila, which she has sung regularly. She has recorded Wagner's Erda with Dohnányi, although most of her recordings, which range from Rimsky-Korsakov's Christmas Eve to songs by Shostakovich, are of Russian music. Her statuesque voice has a contralto-like richness. JOHN ALLISON Zarewutius [Zarevutius, Zerewucius, Zarevutzius], Zachariáš [Zacharias] (b Brezovica nad Torysou [now Berzevicze], nr Prešov, c1605; d Bardejov, 20 Feb 1667). Slovak composer and organist. He was educated at the Latin school in Brezovica. In 1623–4 he was organist at the Lutheran church in Spišská Nová Ves, and then, until 1667 at St Giles in Bardejov. He was married twice and had six children, two of whom became musicians: Ján (1645–99) was organist in Bardejov from 1668 to 1673 and Zachariáš (1631–93) exercised the same profession in Levoča from 1682 to 1693. Only 18 of Zarewutius’s works survive (nine of them incomplete), in manuscripts in the Bardejov collection (H-Bn). Zarewutius copied them into partbooks and tablature books along with pieces by Handl, Hassler, Lassus, Hieronymus Praetorius, Scheidt and others; some items bear copying dates between 1650 and 1665. Zarewutius’s own works include a mass, Magnificat settings and motets for Christmas, New Year, Whitsun and Trinity Sunday. They show a mastery of polychoral technique, with frequent antiphonal exchanges in mostly homophonic textures, contrasts of rhythm, metre and timbre and various combinations of voices. WORKS Edition: Zachariáš Zarewutius (1605?–1667): Magnificats and Motets, ed. R.Á. Murányi and I. Ferenczi, Musicalia Danubiana, viii (Budapest, 1987) [M] all extant works in H-Bn* Latin sacred
German sacred
Instrumental
BIBLIOGRAPHY O. Gombosi: ‘Die Musikalien der Pfarrkirche zu St. Aegidi in Bártfa’, Musikwissenschaftliche Beiträge: Festschrift für Johannes Wolf, ed. W. Lott, H. Osthoff and W. Wolffheim (Berlin, 1929), 38–47 O. Gombosi: ‘Quellen aus dem 16.–17. Jahrhundert zur Geschichte der Musikpflege in Bartfeld (Bártfa) und Oberungarn’, Ungarische Jahrbücher, xii (1932), 331–40 R. Rybariĉ: ‘K biografii J. Schimbraczkého a Z. Zarewutia’ [On the biographies of Šimbracký and Zarevutius], SH, x (1966), 108–9 R. Rybariĉ: ‘Zacharias Zarewutius, organista Bartphae (1625–1664)’, Nové obzory, xvi (1974), 261–84 [incl. thematic catalogue] F. Matúš: Zacharias Zarewutzky: Biographia (diss., U. of Prešov, 1976) R. Rybarič: Dejiny hudobnej kultúry na Slovensku, i: Stredovek, renesancia, barok [The history of musical culture in Slovakia, i: The Middle Ages, Renaissance and Baroque] (Bratislava, 1984) R. Benjamin and others, ed. : Magyarország zenetörténete [The History of Music in Hungary], ii (Budapest, 1990) L. Kačic: ‘Barok’, Dejiny slovensky hudby: od nojstarisch cias po súcasnost, ed. O. Elschek (Bratislava, 1996), 75–118 JANKA PETŐCZOVÁ-MATÚŠOVÁ Zargen (Ger.). See Ribs. Zariņš, Margers [Margeris] (b Jaunpiebalga, 24 May 1910; d Riga, 27 Feb 1993). Latvian composer and writer. He studied with Vītols at the Latvian State Conservatory (1929–33), and was director of music at the Latvian Art Theatre (1940–50) and chairman of the Latvian Composers’ Union (1956–68). He received the Order of Lenin in 1956. Of his compositions, the music for stage has attracted the most attention. His musical trait in other genres is also theatricality, with unexpected contrasts in style and genre, and various manifestations of comic humour. His early pieces developed along post-Impressionist and neo-Romantic lines, though his works of the 1960s turned to stylizing older genres, giving many works a neo-classical feel. In the 1970s he became a writer of prose, producing three novels, collected stories and a number of autobiographical works. WORKS (selective list) Stage
Other
BIBLIOGRAPHY L. Krasinska: Margeris Zariņš (Riga, 1960) O. Gravitis: ‘Margeris Zariņš’, Padomju Latvijas mūzikas darbinieki (Riga, 1965), 624–8 L. Viduleja: Latviešu padomju opera [Latvian soviet operas] (Riga, 1973) V. Briede-Bulavinova: Opernoye tvorchestvo latïshskikh kompozitorov [Operas of Latvian composers] (Leningrad, 1979), 90–114 T. Kurysheva: Marger Zarin (Moscow, 1980) ARNOLDS KLOTIŅŠ Zarlino, Gioseffo [Gioseffe] (b Chioggia, probably 31 Jan 1517; d Venice, 4 Feb 1590). Italian theorist and composer. He was a leading theorist of counterpoint in the 16th century. In his book Le istitutioni harmoniche, a landmark in the history of music theory, he achieved an integration of speculative and practical theory and established Willaert’s methods as models for contrapuntal writing. 1. Life. 2. Works. WRITINGS WORKS BIBLIOGRAPHY CLAUDE V. PALISCA Zarlino, Gioseffo Life. Baldi, who knew Zarlino personally and whose biography of him is dated 20 November 1595, stated that he was born on 31 January 1519/20, but there are no documents to support this date, and other dates that he cited are inconsistent with it. In his own history of the Capuchin friars of Venice (1579) Zarlino recalled that when he was very small his uncle Bartolomeo Zarlino entered the Franciscan order on 24 July 1521 together with a Fra Paulo, who became a strong influence in his childhood. He received his early education among the Franciscans. According to Baldi he studied grammar with Giacobo Eterno Sanese, arithmetic and geometry with Giorgio Atanagi and music with Francesco Maria Delfico. Archival documents give the dates of his religious promotions: the first tonsure on 14 April 1532; minor orders on 3 April 1537; and a deaconship on 22 April 1539 (from which his presumed date of birth is deduced on the basis of a regulation that one had to be 22 to be eligible for this position). He is recorded at Chioggia Cathedral as a singer in July 1536 and as organist in 1539–40. He must have been ordained by 1540, because on 27 April he was elected ‘capellano’ and mansionario of the Scuola di S Francesco, Chioggia. He moved to Venice in 1541 and became a pupil of Willaert. According to Baldi he also studied logic and philosophy with Cristoforo da Ligname, Greek with Guglielmo Fiammingo and Hebrew with a nephew or grandson of Elia Tesbite. After the resignation of Rore, a fellow pupil of Willaert, Zarlino was appointed maestro di cappella of S Marco, Venice, on 5 July 1565, and he held this post until his death. In the same year he was elected a chaplain of S Severo. In 1583 he was made a canon of the chapter of Chioggia Cathedral; also in that year he was nominated for the office of bishop by a delegation from Chioggia but lost the election. Among his pupils were Claudio Merulo, Giovanni Croce, Girolamo Diruta, Vincenzo Galilei and Giovanni Maria Artusi. Zarlino, Gioseffo Works. Le istitutioni harmoniche (1558) is one of the most important works of music theory. Zarlino aimed in it to unite speculative theory with the practice of composition on the grounds that ‘music considered in its ultimate perfection contains these two parts so closely joined that one cannot be separated from the other’ (i, 2). The composer must not be content to master his craft; he should know the reason for what he does, and this can be discovered through an alliance of the rational and sensory faculties. The first two parts (they are designated ‘books’ in the 1573 edition) present the traditional curriculum of musica theorica from a fresh viewpoint. In part i Zarlino reviewed the philosophical, cosmological and mathematical basis of music. Part ii sets forth the Greek tonal system and supplants it with a modern theory of consonances and tuning. Zarlino synthesized critically a vast literature on music, philosophy, theology, mathematics and classical history and literature. Having observed, like Ramis de Pareia, Gaffurius, Spataro and Lodovico Fogliano before him, that 3rds and 6ths were not consonant in the ratios handed down by Pythagorean theory, he sought a system that would permit sweet-sounding imperfect consonances, which were essential components of modern part-writing. The Pythagoreans had limited the class of intervals they called consonant to those produced by the first four divisions of a string: the octave, 2:1; 5th, 3:2; 4th, 4:3; octave plus 5th, 3:1; and double octave, 4:1. Zarlino extended the upper limit to the divisions of the string into two, three, four, five and six equal segments. Thus the number six, ‘numero senario’ (fig.2), epitomized the formal cause – the ‘sonorous number’ (‘numero sonoro’) – that generated consonances out of the ‘sounding body’ (‘corpo sonoro’). The elevation of the determinant of consonance from four to six permitted the admission of several more intervals: the major 3rd, 5:4; the minor 3rd, 6:5; and the major 6th, 5:3. The minor 6th, 8:5, which remained outside this sanctuary, had to be rationalized as the joining of a perfect 4th and a minor 3rd. Before the newly gained consonances were legitimately practicable, a tuning that yielded them consistently had to be devised. The syntonic diatonic, which Ptolemy had praised (as Zarlino learnt from Gaffurius) because its tetrachord was made up entirely of superparticular ratios (descending 9:10, 8:9, 15:16), fitted Zarlino’s needs, and it could be adapted to the Western ascending scale (ii, 39), from C to c: 9:8, 10:9, 16:15, 9:8, 10:9, 9:8, 16:15. This scale lacked the symmetry of the two descending disjunct tetrachords of the Greeks, as in e to E, but for Zarlino it had the overriding virtue of containing, reduced to an octave, the consonances as generated by the first six divisions of the string in the order of the sonorous numbers – octave, 5th, 4th, major 3rd, minor 3rd. The order of the sonorous numbers explained also Zarlino’s preference for the major over the minor 3rd and for its placing below the minor 3rd in a chord. He discovered an additional reason for this placement in the ancient doctrine of the harmonic and arithmetical means. If the three notes, for example C, E, G, are represented by string lengths, as 30, 24, 20, the middle term, 24, is the harmonic mean. This was the most perfect arrangement of consonances, in which the larger interval was divided harmonically. The reverse arrangement of 3rds, produced by the arithmetical mean, ‘is somewhat removed from perfection of harmony, because its elements are not arranged in their natural locations’ (iii, 31). A further consequence of the sonorous numbers, but one which Zarlino did not deduce until his Dimostrationi harmoniche of 1571 (Rag.v, defi.8, 14), was the renumbering of the modes. As is evident from the scale given above, his primary octave was C to c rather than A to a as with Boethius and his followers. The species of consonances should, therefore, be numbered from C rather than, as traditionally, from A. Since the modes were essentially species of octaves, they too should be numbered from C so that C authentic is 1, C plagal 2, D authentic 3 etc. Zarlino showed that this system had two further advantages: it started from the ut of solmization; and the intervals between the finals of the first three authentic modes were parallel to those that separated the Greek Dorian, Phrygian and Lydian modes (tone–tone–semitone). He did not, however, use the Greek names for his modes. Zarlino acknowledged that the numerical criteria that he established in parts i and ii for the tuning of the consonances did not apply to instrumental music, which employed artificial tunings made necessary by the imperfection of instruments. But in the natural medium of the voice it was possible, he maintained, to realize all the inherent perfection of harmony. It was in the vocal medium that he was able to bring to bear on musica practica, the art of counterpoint, the consequences of his theory of consonances. Counterpoint was fundamentally an art of bringing harmony out of diversity: ‘a kind of harmony that contains diverse variations of sounds or steps, using rational intervallic proportions and temporal measurements … an artful union of diverse sounds reduced to concordance’ (iii, 1). Zarlino’s rules established certain conditions through which diverse elements were brought into agreement: (1) dissonances were subordinated to consonances by being allowed on the down- or upbeat (the first and third minim in C) only when held over from a syncopated consonance, that is, in suspensions; dissonances of small value and of local motion were permitted on subdivisions of these beats; (2) contrary motion and independence of melody maintained an equilibrium among the parts; (3) a composition was organized around a determinate mode, which harmonized different sections through permissible cadences and limited the introduction of notes outside the diatonic steps; (4) the steady recurrence of down- and upbeats integrated the diverse rhythms within a rational scheme of measurement. The rules of counterpoint developed by Zarlino from the teachings of Willaert were propagated in the next generation by his pupil Artusi, who reduced them to tabular form in L’arte del contraponto ridotta in tavole (1586), and by Orazio Tigrini in a compendium of 1588. Translations and adaptations by Jean le Fort and Claude Hardy and heavy borrowing by Salomon de Caus and Mersenne in France and paraphrases by Sweelinck and his pupils in the Netherlands and Germany provide evidence of the wide diffusion of his theories of composition. His theoretical foundations had a shorter life, however. Almost immediately the scientist Giovanni Battista Benedetti in two letters to Rore of about 1563 (later published in his Diversarum speculationum, 1585) demonstrated mathematically that a choir singing consistently according to the intervals of the syntonic diatonic would deviate progressively further and further from the starting pitch. Galilei in his Dialogo of 1581 raised similar objections and also pointed out numerous instances in which Zarlino had misunderstood his ancient sources. Zarlino replied at great length in his Sopplimenti musicali (1588), in which he displayed much greater penetration into the ancient authors, particularly Aristoxenus and Ptolemy, which had been published in 1562 in a Latin translation by Gogava, than in Le istitutioni harmoniche; but he failed to refute Galilei’s valid criticisms. Zarlino’s compositions, though learned and polished, are of secondary interest. His motets are models of canonic procedures, both with and without a cantus firmus. He was extremely attentive to text-setting and underlay according to the natural rhythm and accent of speech, an aspect of composition that he dealt with definitively in Le istitutioni (iv, 33). His madrigals are conservative in their use of dissonance and chromaticism, and even homophonic textures are rare. Although conventional word-painting is common, the expressiveness characteristic of Willaert’s late works is matched only rarely, as in the setting of Petrarch’s spiritual sonnet I’ vo piangendo. Zarlino, Gioseffo WRITINGS Le istitutioni harmoniche (Venice, 1558/R, 3/1573/R; Eng. trans. of pt.iii, 1968/R, as The Art of Counterpoint; Eng. trans. of pt.iv, 1983, as On the Modes) Dimostrationi harmoniche (Venice, 1571/R, 2/1573) Sopplimenti musicali (Venice, 1588/R) De tutte l’opere del r. m. G. Zarlino (Venice, 1588–9) [incl. the above 3 works as vols.i–iii and non-musical works in iv] Zarlino, Gioseffo WORKS Dates and nos. in parentheses indicate edn, pt. or bk, and chap. references in Le istitutioni harmoniche. Edition: Gioseffo Zarlino: Nove madrigali a cinque voci tratti da varie raccolte, ed. S. Cisilino (Venice, 1963) [C] Sacred
Secular
Zarlino, Gioseffo BIBLIOGRAPHY CaffiS StrunkSRZ G. Zarlino: Informatione … intorno la origine della congregatione de i Reverendi Frati Capuccini (Venice, 1579) B. Baldi: ‘Vite inedite di matematici italiani’, [MS, 1595] ed. E. Narducci, Bolletino di bibliografia e storia delle scienze matematiche e fisiche, xix (1886), 633–40 G.B. Benedetti: Diversarum speculationum mathematicarum & physicorum liber (Turin, 1585) V. Galilei: Discorso intorno all’opere di Messer Gioseffo Zarlino da Chioggia (Florence, 1589/R) G.M. Artusi: Impresa del molto Rev. M. Gioseffo Zarlino da Chioggia … dichiarata (Bologna, 1604) H. Riemann: ‘Zarlino als harmonischer Dualist’, MMg, xii (1880), 155–7, 174 H. Zenck: ‘Zarlino’s “Istitutioni harmoniche” als Quelle zur Musikanschauung der italienischen Renaissance’, ZMw, xii (1929–30), 540–78 C. Dahlhaus: ‘War Zarlino Dualist?’, Mf, x (1957), 286–91 R.W. Wienpahl: ‘Zarlino, the Senario, and Tonality’, JAMS, xii (1959), 27–41 G.A. Marco: ‘Zarlino’s Rules of Counterpoint in the Light of Modern Pedagogy’, MR, xxii (1961), 1–12 C.V. Palisca: ‘Scientific Empiricism in Musical Thought’, Seventeenth-Century Science and the Arts, ed. H.H. Rhys (Princeton, NJ, 1961); repr. with pref. note in Palisca, Studies in the History of Italian Music and Music Theory (Oxford, 1994), 200–35 R. Flury: Gioseffo Zarlino als Komponist (Winterthur, 1962) R. Monterosso: ‘L’estetica di Gioseffo Zarlino’, Chigiana, xxiv, new ser. iv (1967), 13–28 R. Crocker: ‘Perché Zarlino diede una nuova numerazione ai modi?’, RIM, iii (1968), 48–58 C.V. Palisca: Introduction to G. Zarlino: The Art of Counterpoint, trans. G.A. Marco and C.V. Palisca (New Haven, CT, and London, 1968), xiii–xxvi; see also review by D. Launay, RBM, xx (1970), 240–42 J. Haar: ‘Zarlino’s Definition of Fugue and Imitation’, JAMS, xxiv (1971), 226–54 D.P. Walker: ‘Some Aspects of the Musical Theory of Vincenzo Galilei and Galileo Galilei’, PRMA, c (1973–4), 33–47; repr. in Walker, Studies in Musical Science in the Late Renaissance (London, 1978), 14–26 M.S. Lewis: ‘Zarlino’s Theories of Text Underlay as Illustrated in his Motet Book of 1549’, Notes, xlii (1985–6), 239–67 J. Levy and A. Mori: ‘The Diatonic Basis of Fugue in Zarlino’, In Theory Only, ix/2–3 (1986), 33–46 I. Palumbo-Fossati: ‘La casa veneziana di Gioseffo Zarlino nel testamento e nell’inventario dei beni del grande teorico musicale’, NRMI, xx (1986), 633–49 P. Walker: ‘From Renaissance “fuga” to Baroque Fugue: the Role of the “Sweelinck Theory Manuscripts”’, Schütz-Jb 1986, 93–104 D. Harrán: Word-Tone Relations in Musical Thought: from Antiquity to the Seventeenth Century (Stuttgart, 1986) P. Barbieri: Acustica, accordatura e temperamento nell’Illuminismo veneto (Rome, 1987) E. Fubini: ‘Zarlino, Venezia e la musica strumentale’, Andrea Gabrieli e il suo tempo, ed. F. Degrada (Florence, 1987), 387–402 D. Harrán: ‘Sulla genesi della famosa disputa fra Gioseffo Zarlino e Vincenzo Galilei: un nuovo profilo’, NRMI, xxi (1987), 467–75 B. Rivera: ‘Zarlino’s Approach to Counterpoint Modified and Transmitted by Seth Calvisius’, IMSCR XIV: Bologna 1987, ii, 167–8 D. Harrán: In Search of Harmony: Hebrew and Humanist Elements in Sixteenth-Century Musical Thought (Stuttgart, 1988) R. Airoldi: La teoria del temperamento dell’età di Gioseffo Zarlino, ed. E.F. Barassi (Cremona, 1989) M. Fend: ‘Zarlinos Versuch einer Axiomatisierung der Musiktheorie in den Dimostrationi harmoniche (1571)’, Musiktheorie, iv/2 (1989), 113–26 L. Fico: Zarlino: Consonanza e dissonanza nelle ‘Istitutioni harmoniche’ (Bari, 1989) C.V. Palisca: The Florentine Camerata: Documentary Studies and Translations (New Haven, CT, 1989) P. Sanvito: ‘Le sperimentazioni nelle scienze quadriviali di alcuni epistolari Zarliniani inediti’, Studi musicali, xix (1990), 305–18 M. Lindley: ‘Zarlino’s 2/7-Comma Meantone Temperament’, Music in Performance and Society: Essays in Honor of Roland Jackson, ed. M. Cole and J. Koegel (Warren, MI, 1997) Zarotto, Antonio (b Parma, c1450; d Milan, 1510). Italian printer. He was the first printer in Milan, from 1471. His Missale romanum of 1474, the first dated printed missal, and its successor, the first Missale ambrosianum (1475), contain no printed music; scribes filled in the notation, in the latter book with a two-line red and yellow staff. Zarotto later printed the music of Ambrosian plainchant in the missal (1488, 1490), ritual (c1487) and psalter (1496). He added roman plainchant characters to his fount to print the music of other missals (1488, 1492, 1504). BIBLIOGRAPHY DugganIMI A. Ganda: I primordi della tipografia milanese: Antonio Zarotto da Parma (1471–1507) (Florence, 1984) M.K. DUGGAN Zarqa. Sign used in Hebrew Ekphonetic notation. See also Jewish music, §III, 2(ii). Zart (Ger.: ‘delicate’, ‘tender’, ‘sensitive’, ‘subdued’). An expression mark found particularly in German scores of the 19th and 20th centuries, also in the instruction zart hervortretend (‘coming forward within the orchestral texture but remaining gentle’). For Wagner zart may have meant something different from dolce, for he often has the two in close proximity (e.g. in the final scene of Tristan). See also Tempo and expression marks. DAVID FALLOWS Zarth [Czard, Czarth, Szarth, Tzarth, Zardt], Georg (b Hochtann, nr Deutschbrod, Bohemia, 8 April 1708; d ?Mannheim, after 1778). Bohemian composer and violinist. He received his earliest musical instruction from Lukas Lorenz, the Deutschbrod teacher with whom Johann Stamitz is alleged to have studied. Around 1725 he went to Vienna where he studied the violin with F.J. Timmer and J.A. Rosetter and took flute lessons from Biarelli. Zarth then entered the service of Count Pachta at Rajov, but did not remain long in this post; he had formed a friendship with Franz Benda and as both were equally dissatisfied with their positions they left Vienna abruptly in 1729 and fled to Poland. After a short stop in Breslau, they found employment near Warsaw with the Starost Suchaczewsky. From this point until 1757 Zarth’s career followed Benda’s very closely. They remained with the Starost for about two and a half years before first Benda, and then Zarth, left to join the Polish royal chapel in Warsaw. On the accession of August II in 1733 both musicians transferred to the Dresden Hofkapelle. Their appointment was, however, of short duration, for in 1734 Zarth followed Benda in accepting a summons to the chapel of Crown Prince Frederick at Ruppin. Zarth remained in Frederick’s service for over 20 years, moving with the rest of the chapel to Rheinsberg in 1736 and then to Berlin after Frederick’s accession in 1740. It was not until 1757 or 1758 that the careers of Benda and Zarth diverged: while Benda remained in Berlin, Zarth took up a post at Mannheim. He was listed among the first violins in 1767 and was still a member of the court orchestra in 1778, when the Munich archives recorded payment of 800 guilders to the violinist ‘Czard’. As only a small proportion of Zarth’s music has survived it is difficult to assess his development as a composer. The printed sonatas seem to be early works, written when Zarth’s style was still rooted in the Baroque idiom. The Allegro from op.2 no.5 is characteristic in its reliance on sequential figuration and in its colourful exploitation of string technique. In other works Zarth adopted a more galant style, but he was never in the forefront of developments; his move to Mannheim came too late to be of decisive importance. WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY BrookB GerberL KöchelKHM NewmanSCE WalterG F.W. Marpurg: Historisch-kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der Musik (Berlin, 1754–78/R), i, 547–8 H. Riemann: Introduction to DTB, xxviii, Jg.xvi (1915), pp.xxiv, lviii P. Nettl: Forgotten Musicians (New York, 1951/R), 214–15, 218, 220 PIPPA DRUMMOND Zarzuela (Sp., from zarza: ‘bramble’, ‘bramble bush’). A Spanish genre of musical theatre characterized by a mixture of sung and spoken dialogue. Covarrubias's Tesoro de la lengua castellana (1611) defines zarza as ‘a spiny mat … a thing that is all linked together and intertwined in itself’. ‘Zarzuela’ is also used generally to describe a mixture or jumble. 1. To 1800. 2. The 19th century and the ‘género chico’. 3. The 20th century. BIBLIOGRAPHY LOUISE K. STEIN (1), ROGER ALIER (2, 3) Zarzuela To 1800. The first use of the word ‘zarzuela’ in a theatrical and musical context is found in the auto sacramental De los cantares by Lope de Vega. In a scene that includes rustic dances, one called ‘zarzuela’ carries as its text an adaptation of an older popular peasant song or seranilla. In the late 1650s ‘zarzuela’ was used to refer to short musical plays of a lightly burlesque nature organized by Gaspar de Haro, the Marquis of Heliche, to entertain the king and his guests at the renovated Palacio Real de la Zarzuela, a royal hunting-lodge in the wooded outskirts of Madrid. The first such plays, with texts by Pedro Calderón de la Barca and music presumably by Juan Hidalgo, called for an especially large number of female actor-singers. Musical intervention was not at all new in court plays, and in the 1650s both the two-act pastoral zarzuelas and the more complex, heavily dramatic, three-act mythological comedias or semi-operas (see Semi-opera) performed at the Coliseo del Buen Retiro included songs of various sorts and spoken dialogue together with declamatory sung dialogue. Although most 17th-century zarzuelas do not call for recitative at all, or require at most only one or two small sections of it, recitative was included in Calderón’s mythological plays as early as 1652 in La fiera, el rayo, y la piedra and in the extensively musical semi-opera Fortunas de Andrómeda y Perseo (presumably with music by Hidalgo) of 1653. The first known zarzuela is Calderón’s El laurel de Apolo, in two acts, written in 1657 to celebrate the birth of Prince Philip (Felipe Próspero) but not performed until early in 1658. Court documents confirm that it and his one-act ‘piscatory eclogue’ El golfo de las sirenas (1657) were produced by the Marquis of Heliche emphasizing musical splendour rather than extensive visual display. Since Calderón seems to have abruptly left off writing mythological semi-operas after 1653 (though he later returned to the genre), it is likely that these works of 1657 were invented to present highly entertaining musical plays appropriate for the royal decorum on the small stage of the Zarzuela palace, without the enormous rehearsal time and expenditure that the semi-operas required. In 1658, however, the Marquis of Heliche produced a spectacular musical play at the Coliseo del Buen Retiro in celebration of the prince’s birth. This play, Triunfos de Amor y Fortuna by Antonio de Solís (extant songs by Juan Hidalgo and Cristóbal Galán), is much like a zarzuela in its musical scenes, with ensemble songs (coros) and solo songs mostly in the form of coplas and estribillo. Its plot also exhibits the mixed and somewhat messy character of the zarzuela, combining two different mythological love stories in a rustic and pastoral setting, complete with classical deities as protagonists in the company of pastoral and allegorical figures. 17th-century zarzuelas varied in the quantity of music they included, so that the genre cannot be defined or understood on this basis alone. They take the rustic and pastoral landscape as their setting, and, just as the zarza is a common sort of vegetation, the zarzuela used predominantly common sorts of music. Calderón’s text for El laurel de Apolo is exemplary, although its music seems not to survive. This is a fiesta de zarzuela in two acts, introduced by a loa (prologue), set in the ‘fields of Madrid’, in which the character of Zarzuela explains that rustic simplicity is an element long overlooked in courtly entertainments, and promises that everyone will enjoy the new genre, which is not a comedia but a shorter pastoral fable that is partly sung and partly spoken. El laurel de Apolo is not a opera text: its stage directions make clear that it was not fully sung; yet Calderón mentioned Italian practice in Zarzuela’s monologue (‘a imitación de Italia / se canta y se representa’), referring to the alternation between sung and spoken dialogue that came to characterize the zarzuela and most other large-scale Spanish court plays. It is likely that Calderón needed to explain his choice of the pastoral as a musical entertainment because the mythological pastoral had not been cultivated at court for nearly three decades. By recuperating it as a hybrid zarzuela, Calderón introduced a new genre. Virtually all the dramatists who wrote for the Spanish court in the 17th century provided zarzuela texts, and the zarzuela became the favourite and most prolifically cultivated genre of palace play during the reigns of the last of the Spanish Habsburgs. Younger contemporaries of Calderón, including Francisco de Avellaneda, Juan Bautista Diamante, Melchor Fernández de León, Agustín de Salazar y Torres, Antonio de Solís and Juan Vélez de Guevara, contributed zarzuelas to great acclaim. This kind of zarzuela set the model for some courtly celebrations in Latin America as well, to judge by the elegantly preserved text for También se vengan los dioses, a zarzuela in two acts by Lorenzo de las Llamosas (a Peruvian writer who later emigrated to the Spanish court in Madrid), performed in Lima to honour the birth of the second son of the viceroy, the Count of Monclova. The extant music for many of the Madrid productions, which has survived mainly as individual songs in performing parts and anthologies, points to Hidalgo as the chief composer for court musical plays from the 1650s to his death in 1685, although Galán also wrote for a few plays. Hidalgo’s songs were composed as perfect vehicles for affective expression in their respective scenes, using the standard Spanish forms of the tono (usually with coplas and estribillo) and tonada, while closely projecting and interpreting the elaborately baroque song texts provided by the dramatists. Hidalgo’s music set the standard for other composers, and his collaborations with the dramatists of his time reflect the solidification of the musical-theatrical conventions that characterized Spanish musical drama for some time to come. Hidalgo’s pupil Juan Francisco de Navas and Juan Serqueira de Lima, a famous composer and harpist who worked in the theatre companies, composed for revivals of older zarzuelas when the original music had been lost. Navas composed new zarzuelas to texts by Fernández de León and later authors such as Francisco de Bances Candamo, Lorenzo de las Llamosas, Manuel Vidal Salvador and Antonio de Zamora. The extant songs by Navas for these works and the invaluable printed score of his music for Destinos vencen finezas (1698; text by Llamosas) demonstrate a slightly more modern musical style incorporating obbligato instrumental parts that join the vocal parts in dialogue, longer phrases and more ornamented, longer-breathed vocal lines. Navas also composed longer, continuous musical scenes that incorporate recitado (a Spanish type of recitative) together with highly affective estribillos and traditional, typically declamatory coplas. Musical innovations are also found in the extant scores of zarzuelas by Sebastián Durón, who collaborated with Navas in at least one work and succeeded him as the most brilliant composer of zarzuelas in the last years of the 17th century and the first two decades of the 18th. The several zarzuelas that Durón composed for the court (with texts by José de Cañizares, Marcos de Lanuza and Antonio de Zamora) were also performed with great success in the public theatres of Madrid in the period 1710–20, although Durón was forced for political reasons into exile in France and died there in 1716. Another court musician, the highly original Antonio Literes, incorporated the traditional Spanish musical forms (tonos, tonadas, coplas, estribillos, recitados) and the stylistic ideals and affective conventions of Hidalgo, Navas and Durón into his zarzuelas of 1708–11, alongside italianate arias and recitatives. Literes also composed stage works for noble patrons, which may be why he composed so few works for the royal court and the public theatres. Literes’s zarzuela Accis y Galatea (1708), however, was a great success at court and subsequently became extremely popular in the public theatres. In the first and second decades of the 18th century the zarzuela was transformed from a genre designed to delight princes into a genre beloved of the mixed public that attended the public theatres. This transformation came about because of political change (the War of the Spanish Succession resulted in the accession of the Bourbon dynasty to the Spanish throne), a change in royal preferences, changes in literary taste and fashion and a renewed interest on the part of Madrid’s theatre-going public for musical plays. The administrators of the public theatre discovered (through the production of works like Literes’s Accis y Galatea) that musical plays brought in substantial revenue. This also meant that violinists and oboists were suddenly in demand for the theatre orchestras – further evidence of the zarzuela’s adaptation to the demands of new musical practices, since these small orchestras had traditionally been large continuo bands built of harps and guitars. Talented female actor-singers were also newly in demand for the busy theatrical troupes. Castrato singers were not a part of the Spanish theatrical practice (they sang only in chapel) and it was traditional that serious singing roles were taken by women. Apart from the works of Durón and Literes, few zarzuelas survive from the early 18th century, although administrative documents record their performance histories. The character of the full-blown 18th-century zarzuela, with its absorption of the mainstream pan-European operatic style (principally in mature da capo arias and italianate recitatives) and conservation of traditionally Spanish numbers (coplas, seguidillas and frequent four-voice coros, for example), characters (the graciosos) and conventions is exemplified in José Nebra’s hugely successful Viento es la dicha de Amor (first version 1743; later versions 1748 and 1752) to a text by Antonio de Zamora (who died about 1728). Nebra’s score preserves Zamora’s older libretto, except that all the song texts for the principal serious characters (Amor, Liríope, Céfiro, Ninfa) are replaced by new texts appropriate for recitative and da capo arias. In this sense Nebra’s work demonstrates the flexible, hybrid character of the zarzuela, with its admixture of typically Spanish numbers (for the comic and castizo characters) and musical forms drawn from contemporary opera seria. The history of the zarzuela in the 18th century unfolds in an epoch characterized by the co-existence of musical styles and genres, and by the increasing separation of the court’s musical and musical-theatrical life from that of the public sphere. The preference of the Bourbon kings and their wives for Italian opera seria and Italian singers (almost entirely in private performances in the Coliseo del Buen Retiro and other royal theatres) did not find popular support in Madrid, though Italian composers and musicians had worked in the public theatres during the first half of the 18th century, providing music for comedias and zarzuelas. Operatic music was cultivated in the public theatres in Madrid in productions of texts by Metastasio, but these were adapted to the Spanish practice. The librettos were translated into Spanish, the recitative dialogues were replaced by spoken dialogue in Spanish and a number of arias were cut. These ‘operas’ were performed by all-female casts and were clearly shaped not by the aesthetic of opera seria but by the aesthetic and conventions of zarzuela. About 1760 Spanish composers recaptured the public by deliberately and selfconsciously cultivating a recognizably ‘Spanish’ and madrileño musical style, shaping large-scale works according not to operatic convention but to the conventions developed a century earlier. This was a nationalist movement that depended to a large degree on the new influence of the prolific dramatist Ramón de la Cruz (1731–94), and the inspiration of new native or castizo forms such as the comic sainete and tonadilla, cultivated by composers such as Jacinto Valledor, Pablo Esteve and Blas de Laserna. The large-scale zarzuela burlesca El tío y la tía (1767) by Antonio Rosales, to a one-act libretto by Ramón de la Cruz, was the first important production of this new movement. In 1769 a two-act zarzuela by Antonio Rodríguez de Hita, Las labradoras de Murcia, also with text by Ramón de la Cruz, was produced in Madrid. This is the first extant zarzuela de costumbres. Its plot is not only laced through with popular humour, but is devoted to an exposition of local customs and social convention with highly castizo musical numbers. It may have served as an example to those composers and librettists who took up the cause of the zarzuela in the later 19th century. In the works of Rosales and Rodríguez de Hita there are obvious musical gestures from opera buffa and the predominant musical style is pan-European. In the last quarter of the 18th century and the first of the 19th the zarzuela disappeared from the stages of Madrid and no new works were added to the repertory. Ramón de la Cruz wrote no zarzuela texts after about 1776, and late 18th-century composers devoted themselves to composing shorter comic works (sainetes and tonadillas) in which the emphasis was wholly on singing, with buffa arias, duets and ensembles combined with fashionable Spanish dances and castizo songs. Indeed, a number of these sainetes play the Spanish and Italian conventions and musical styles against each other in a humorous and lightly selfconscious fashion. Their arias contain sometimes exceedingly long and difficult passages of coloratura writing, and demand expertise, control and vocal range from the singers. This would seem to demonstrate that in the late 18th century the focus of musical plays for the public was on music and musical performance. Although the sainetes and tonadillas were not zarzuelas, they benefit from the legacy of the hybrid zarzuela, with its focus on lyrical songs and its selective exploitation of elements from the pan-European musical style of 18th-century opera, alongside popular Spanish songs and dances. Zarzuela 2. The 19th century and the ‘género chico’. In the early 1800s the zarzuela was virtually forgotten; Italian opera had taken its place. When in 1832 Ramón Carnicer, Mateo Albéniz and the musicologist Baltasar Saldoni wrote a little opera in Spanish, Los enredos de un curioso, for the Madrid Conservatory, Saldoni insisted on calling it a zarzuela since it had spoken parts in Spanish; but the revival of the genre would have to wait until the mid-19th century. Among the first to try his hand at it was the Italian Basilio Basili, whose one-act pieces El novio y el concierto (1839) and El ventorillo de Crespo (1842) were billed as zarzuelas and show some Andalusian influence. While musical circles in Madrid were trying to create a truly ‘national opera’ in Spanish, other less ambitious composers revived the zarzuela tradition, especially after Rafael Hernando won great success with Colegiales y soldados at the Teatro del Instituto, Madrid, in 1849. This is usually considered the first modern zarzuela, but other pieces by Cristóbal Oudrid, Augustín Azcona, Mariano Soriano Fuertes, Sebastián Iradier and Hernando himself had already been performed with some success. Hernando’s El duende (libretto by Luis de Olona) had over 100 performances after its première at the Teatro de Variedades, Madrid, in 1849 and encouraged other composers, including Joaquín Gaztambide, José Inzenga and Francisco Asenjo Barbieri to compose zarzuelas. These three, together with Hernando, Oudrid, Olona and the baritone Francisco L. Salas, formed in 1851 a Sociedad Artística which hired the Teatro de Circo for a season of zarzuelas. Their first production, Gaztambide’s Tribulaciones, was unsuccessful, but the venture was saved by Barbieri’s Jugar con fuego, which enhanced the composer’s standing as leader of the group. Under Barbieri’s influence the zarzuela was italianate in musical style but took the outward form of the French opéra comique. Many librettos follow the French genre closely, including those of Gaztambide’s El valle de Andorra (1852, based on Halévy’s opera) and Catalina (1854, on Meyerbeer’s L’étoile du nord), Barbieri’s Los diamantes de la corona (1854, on Auber’s opera), Inzenga’s ¡Si yo fuera rey! (1862, on Adam’s Si j’étais roi) and Martín Sánchez-Allú’s Fra Diavolo (1857). Some also use plots derived from Italian opera, such as Gaztambide’s Un día de reinado (1854, following Verdi’s Un giorno di regno) and his El juramento (1858, following Mercadante’s opera). The effectiveness of these zarzuelas attracted composers who had at first snubbed them, the most remarkable being Pascual Emilio Arrieta, who had worked on Italian opera in Spanish for Queen Isabella II at her private theatre in the royal palace (closed after the public Teatro Real was opened in November 1850). With El dominó azul (1853, after Auber) Arrieta followed the trend of imitating French opéra comique and had great success with El grumete (1853), but it was his Marina (1855, libretto by Francisco Camprodón) which was to prove his masterpiece after being made into a Spanish opera in 1871 at the request of the Italian tenor Enrico Tamberlik. The Sociedad Artística’s success was so great that its members (Arrieta was admitted, while Inzenga and Oudrid left when more money was required) decided to build a new theatre, the Teatro de la Zarzuela, which still exists. It opened in October 1856 but faced a severe crisis almost immediately and was always on the brink of bankruptcy, from which it was saved by occasional long-running works such as Gaztambide’s Los magyares (1857) and Barbieri’s Pan y toros (1864). Other composers who took up the genre were Manuel Fernández Caballero (not well known until many years later), Dionisio Scarlatti (a great-grandson of Domenico Scarlatti) and Joaquín Espín y Guillén (1812–81), whose main work was Carlos Broschi (1854, Seville). In Barcelona the composers in what was there a new genre included Francesc Porcell and the Minorcan Nicolau Manent, whose La tapada del Retiro, given in 1853 at the Gran Teatre del Liceu, was a lasting success. Josep Pujadas (with Setze jutges, 1858) and José Anselmo Clavé (with L’aplec del Remei, 1858) started a new brand of zarzuela in Catalan, while Manent, the Austrian Demay de Schönbrunn and Gabriel Balart (1824–93) usually composed theirs to Spanish librettos. During the early 1860s the zarzuela attracted a large following, and troupes of singers and musicians travelled throughout the former Spanish dominions in South and Central America and Mexico. Gaztambide, Arrieta and Barbieri were the most popular composers, and Gaztambide’s Una vieja (1860) and La conquista de Madrid (1863), together with Barbieri’s Pan y toros, the main landmarks in the zarzuela’s progress. Zarzuelas in opéra comique style were not to everyone’s taste, however, and when the impresario Francisco Arderíus had the idea of imitating Offenbach, offering buffo zarzuelas on non-mythological subjects (beginning with El joven Telémaco, with music by José Rogel, in 1866), it met with instant approval. At the Teatro de Variedades in Madrid Arderíus’s troupe, the Bufos Madrileños, almost ousted the regular zarzuela company and spread the newer style to other cities (they visited Barcelona in the 1870s and 80s). One consequence was the introduction of translated French operetta; Offenbach’s works at first, but then Audran’s La mascotte and Lecocq’s popular pieces (especially La fille de Madame Angot) began to rival the prestige of the zarzuela. A type of shorter zarzuela, usually in one act – the so-called género chico – developed after the revolution of 1868. Its main characteristics were extended dialogue and a relatively small amount of music; the plots were mostly set in the working-class districts of Madrid, and composers drew on such popular music as the schottische and the mazurka, which the madrileños had come to regard as part of their folklore. Against this trend some composers, notably Fernández Caballero (who scored a political and musical success with La Marsellesa in 1876) and the Valencian Ruperto Chapí, maintained the standards of the traditional ‘zarzuela grande’, even though some of their works (such as Fernández Caballero’s El dúo de la africana and Gigantes y cabezudos, set in Aragon; see illustration) belong to the género chico. A Majorcan composer, Pere Miquel Marquès (1843–1918), wrote a few works remarkable for their robust, almost operatic orchestration, among them El anillo de hierro (1878), which is still fairly well known. The género chico’s success was unparalleled, however, and the demand for it so great that in the 1890s no fewer than 11 theatres in Madrid were entirely given over to it and more than 1500 examples were produced. Federico Chueca, Joaquín Valverde, Manuel Nieto (1844–1915) and Tomás Bretón were among the best-received composers in the género chico. Some of their works have remained popular, especially Bretón’s La verbena de la paloma (1894) and Chapí’s La revoltosa (1897), both of which are set in a typical Madrid district. Chueca and Valverde usually worked together (Valverde for the most part scoring Chueca’s musical ideas) and they wrote extremely popular works such as La gran vía (1886) and El año pasado por agua (1889). After parting with Valverde, Chueca wrote Agua, azucarillos y aguardiente (1897) and El bateo (1901), delightful sketches of lower middle-class life in old Madrid. In the same vein Tomás López Torregrosa composed El santo de la Isidra and La fiesta de San Antón (both 1898), while Jerónimo Giménez set his short and tuneful sketches El baile de Luis Alonso (1896) and La boda de Luis Alonso (1897) in a romanticized Andalusia of the 1840s. Giménez was popular because of his elegant dance music and his interest in genuine folklore and gypsy music, evident in, for example, La tempranica (1900). In Barcelona the zarzuela in Catalan thrived, especially with Urbano Fando, whose Lo somni de l’Ignoscencia (1895) was performed more than 3000 times in its first 25 years. A more intellectual approach was taken by the modernista generation, with composers such as Enric Morera (1865–1942), who fought to create a renewed Teatre Líric Català excluding the Spanish zarzuela. In Valencia Salvador Giner and Vicent Díez-Peydró (1861–1938) wrote zarzuelas in their Valencian brand of the Catalan language. Zarzuela The 20th century. The turn of the century almost coincided with a renewal in the ranks of zarzuela composers. The elder ones were almost all gone by 1910 and the género chico started a speedy decline, despite some late landmarks such as Chapí’s El puña de rosas (1902). The influence of Lehár and his operettas, especially Die lustige Witwe, quickly made itself felt, and the waltz soon replaced the schottische and the mazurka in a series of longer works that set typical operetta stories to lilting, delightful tunes. The first in this field, El rey que rabió, was written by Chapí as early as 1891, but the influence of the foreign operetta was mainly felt from about 1910, when Vicente Lleó scored a triumph with his suggestive and amusing La corte de faraón, while Pablo Luna started his career with Molinos de viento (1910) and confirmed it with Los cadetes de la reina (1913) and El asombro de Damasco (1916). Luna then took a somewhat different path with El niño jurío (1918), which started a fashion for including a patriotic song in every zarzuela. Several younger composers excelled in this new type of operetta-zarzuela, especially Amadeo Vives, who also showed a bent towards opera with Euda d’Uriac (1900) and Bohemios (1904, based on Henry Murger’s famous novel). In Maruxa (1914) he made something worthwhile of an unpromising libretto set in Galicia. His remarkable operetta La generala (1912) retains its place in the repertory, as does Doña Francisquita (1923), his most popular work. José Maria Usandizaga moved further away from operetta in his verista zarzuela Las golondrinas (1914); after his death his brother transformed it into an opera. The Valencian José Serrano was among the few composers of this period who remained faithful to some extent to the género chico. His keen feeling for Spanish folklore is evident in his most popular works, such as La reina mora (1903), Moros y cristianos (1905), La alegría del batallón (1909), La canción del olvido (1916) and, in the last years of his career, Los claveles (1929) and La dolorosa (1930). Another Valencian, Manuel Penella, was most successful in his operettas, including El gato montés (1916). He often wrote his own librettos; Don Gíl de Alcalà (1932) is set in 18th-century Mexico. Of the composers who came to the fore in the 1920s and 30s, many chose to work in the more lengthy type of zarzuela, among them Jacinto Guerrero, whose Los gavilanes (1923) and La rosa del azafrán (1930) are influenced by operatic verismo. At the same time, some composers were trying to update the zarzuela by including new dances or dance rhythms such as the tango and the foxtrot. Francisco Alonso was able enough to succeed with mainly short zarzuelas, most of which might be counted as género chico, although they lack many of the features usually associated with that genre. Among other composers of this period were Jesús Guridi, whose Basque zarzuela El caserío (1926) shows a keen theatrical sense and who also wrote some successful operas, the Galician composer Reveriano Soutullo, whose tuneful and attractive zarzuelas, including La leyenda del beso (1924), La del soto del Parral (1927) and El último romántico (1928) were written in collaboration with Joan Vert Carbonell (1890–1931); and José Padilla, whose songs include the well-known ‘Valencia’ from his La bien amada (1925). Madrid had been losing its hold on the zarzuela. For a number of years Barcelona became a more active centre, and some important premières took place there, including those of Rafael Millán’s La dogaresa (1920, set in medieval Venice) and El pájaro azul (1921), Fernando Díaz Giles’s El cantar del arriero (1930) and Penella’s Don Gíl de Alcalà. The great baritone Marcos Redondo settled in Barcelona in the 1920s and the finest productions and most interesting premières were to be seen in the Catalan capital. At that time a Valencian composer, Rafael Martínez Valls, became a favourite in Barcelona; his Cançó d’amor i de guerra (1926) and La legió d’honor (1930) are still the most popular zarzuelas in Catalan. Madrid soon had a new and remarkable composer in Federico Moreno Torroba, whose Luisa Fernanda (1932), set in the Madrid of the last years of Isabella II, revived interest in Madrid stories. Moreno Torroba repeated his success with La chulapona (1934) and wrote many other zarzuelas, several of which remain in the repertory. The Basque composer Pablo Sorozábal started his long career in the 1920s; his first great success came with Katiuska (1931), and just before the Spanish Civil War he scored an even bigger one in Barcelona with La tabernera del puerto (1936). Zarzuela suffered severely from the restrictions of the civil war and never fully adapted itself to changing times. Some composers tried to follow new trends; in Sorozábal’s Don Manolito (1942) a football match is described on the radio. Before the war several of the leading Spanish composers had tried their hands at writing zarzuelas, including Falla, Albéniz, Granados and Conrado del Campo, but after their deaths the prestige of the zarzuela declined, and among composers of quality only Sorozábal and Moreno Torroba still sought to keep the genre alive. With Moreno Torroba’s Maria Manuela (1957) the last chapter in the history of the zarzuela seems to have been written; only Manuel Moreno-Buendía, Manuel Parada and a few others have since made the occasional attempt to compose new works of this kind. The preservation of the repertory owes much to the conductor Ataúlfo Argenta, who in the 1950s began recording many of the finest zarzuelas. His example was followed by others, and today the music of almost 100 zarzuelas is available on disc. Since the 1960s the Spanish government has tried to protect the zarzuela through publicity and radio broadcasts of the most important recordings, but the Teatro de la Zarzuela, refurbished and reopened in 1956, is now the only subsidized house in Spain which regularly includes zarzuelas in its repertory. Zarzuela BIBLIOGRAPHY To 1800 S. de Covarrúbias Orozco: Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española (Madrid, 1611); ed. M. de Riquer (Barcelona, 1943) Diccionario de la lengua castellana, vi (Madrid, 1739/R) F. Pedrell: Teatro lírico español anterior al siglo XIX (La Coruña, 1897–8) F. Pedrell: ‘La musique indigène dans le théâtre espagnol du XVIIe siècle’, SIMG, v (1903–4), 46–90 E. Cotarelo y Mori: Orígenes y establecimiento de la ópera en España hasta 1800 (Madrid, 1917) E. Cotarelo y Mori: Ensayo sobre la vida y obras de Don Pedro Calderón de la Barca (Madrid, 1924) J. Subirá: La participación musical en el antiguo teatro español (Barcelona, 1930) J. Subirá: ‘Le style dans la musique théâtrale espagnole’, AcM, iv (1932), 67–75 E. Cotarelo y Mori: Historia de la zarzuela, o sea El drama lírico en España (Madrid, 1934) J. Subirá: Historia de la música teatral en España (Barcelona, 1945) J. Sage: ‘Calderón y la música teatral’, Bulletin hispanique, lviii (1956), 275–300 J. Subirá: ‘Calderón de la Barca, libretista de ópera: consideraciones literario-musicales’, AnM, xx (1965), 59–73 J. Subirá: ‘La ópera “castellana” en los siglos XVII y XVIII’, Segismundo, i (1965), 23–42 J. Sage: ‘Nouvelles lumières sur la genèse de l’opéra et la zarzuela en Espagne’, Contribution à l’étude des origines de l’opéra: Montauban 1970, 107–14 J. Sage: ‘Texto y realización de La estatua de Prometeo y otros dramas musicales de Calderón’, Hacía Calderón: Exeter 1969, ed. H. Flasche (Berlin, 1970), 37–52 J.E. Varey, N.D. Shergold and J. Sage, eds.: J. Vélez de Guevara: Los celos hacen estrellas (London, 1970) [incl. J. Sage: ‘La música de Juan Hidalgo para Los celos hacen estrellas’, 169–223] J. Sage: ‘The Function of Music in the Theater of Calderón’, Critical Studies of Calderón Comedias, ed. J.E. Varey (London, 1973), 209–27 M. Querol: ‘La producción musical de los hermanos Sebastián y Diego Durón: catálogo de sus obras’, AnM, xxviii–xxix (1976), 209–20 A. Martín Moreno: ‘La música teatral del siglo XVII español’, La música en el Barroco, ed. E. Casares (Oviedo, 1977), 125–46 A. Martín Moreno: Salir el amor del mundo: transcripción y estudio de la zarzuela (1696) de S. Durón (Málaga, 1979) L.K. Stein: ‘El “Manuscrito Novena”: sus textos, su contexto histórico-musical y el músico Joseph Peyró’, RdMc, iii (1980), 197–234 L.K. Stein: ‘Música existente para comedias de Calderón de la Barca’, Calderón y el teatro español del siglo de oro: Madrid 1981, ii, 1161–72 W.M. Bussey: French and Italian Influence on the Zarzuela 1700–1770 (Ann Arbor, 1982) L.K. Stein: ‘Un manuscrito de música teatral reaparecido, Veneno es de amor la envidia’, RdMc, v (1982), 225–33 M.R. Greer, ed.: P. Calderón de la Barca: La estatua de Prometeo (Kassel, 1986) [incl. L.K. Stein: ‘La plática de los dioses: Music and the Calderonian Court Play, with a Transcription of the Songs from La estatua de Prometeo’, 13–92] A. Martín Moreno: Historia de la música española, v: Siglo XVIII (Madrid, 1986) M.C. de Brito: Opera in Portugal in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1989); see also review by L.K. Stein: JAMS, xliv (1991), 332–43 C. Caballero: ‘Nuevas fuentes musicales de Los celos hacen estrellas de Juan Vélez de Guevara’, Cuadernos de teatro clásico, iii (1989), 119–55 L.K. Stein: ‘Opera and the Spanish Political Agenda’, AcM, lxiii (1991), 125–67 L.K. Stein: ‘Convenciones musicales en el legado de Juan Hidalgo: el aria declamatoria como tonada persuasiva’, F. Bances Candamo y el teatro musical de su tiempo (1662–1704): Oviedo 1992, 177–217 M.S. Alvarez Martínez: José de Nebra Velasco (Zaragoza, 1993) L.K. Stein: ‘The Iberian Peninsula’, Man & Music: the Late Baroque Era, ed. G.J. Buelow (London, 1993), 411–34 L.K. Stein: Songs of Mortals, Dialogues of the Gods: Music and Theatre in Seventeenth-Century Spain (Oxford, 1993) L.K. Stein: ‘Spain’, Man & Music/Music and Society: the Early Baroque Era, ed. C. Price, (London, 1993), 327–48 Música y literatura en la península ibérica: Valladolid 1995 [incl. P. Bolaños and M. de los Reyes Peña: ‘Teatro español en Lisboa durante la temporada de 1724–25: la fiesta de Las nuevas armas de amor’, 13–29; L.K. Stein: ‘“Este nada dichoso género”: la zarzuela y sus convenciones’, 185–217; M.C. de Brito: ‘Relações entre o teatro, a literatura e a ópera em Portugal e no Brasil do sécolo XVIII’; J.M. Leza Cruz: ‘La zarzuela Vientos es la dicha de Amor: producciones en los teatros públicos madrileños en el siglo XVIII’, 393–405] J.J. Carreras: ‘“Conducir a Madrid estos moldes”: producción, dramaturgia y recepción de la fiesta teatral Destinos vencen finezas (1698/99)’, RdMc, xviii (1995), 113–43 J.J. Carreras: ‘Entre la zarzuela y la ópera de corte: representaciones cortesanas en el Buen Retiro entre 1720 y 1724’, Teatro y música en España (siglo XVIII), ed. R. Kleinertz (Kassel, 1996) J.J. Carreras: ‘“Terminare a schiaffoni”: la primera compañía de ópera italiana en Madrid (1738/39)’, Artigrama, xii (1996–7), 99–121 J.M. Leza Cruz: ‘Francesco Corradini y la introducción de la ópera en los teatros comerciales de Madrid (1731–1749)’, ibid., 123–46 G.G. Stiffon: ‘La música teatral de Nicoló Conforto: el estado de la investigación’, ibid., 147–62 J.J. Carreras: ‘From Literes to Nebra: Spanish Dramatic Music between Tradition and Modernity’, Music in Eighteenth-Century Spain (forthcoming) L.K. Stein: ‘Zarzuela’, Diccionario de la música española e hispanoamericana, ed. E. Casares Rodicio (Madrid, 2000) After 1800 LaborD A. Peña y Goñi: La ópera española y la música dramática en España en el siglo XIX (Madrid, 1881) F.A. Barbieri: La zarzuela: carta a D. Pascual Millán (Madrid, 1887) F. Pedrell: Teatro lírico español anterior al siglo XIX (La Coruña, 1897–8) E. Cotarelo y Mori: Historia de la zarzuela, o sea El drama lírico en España (Madrid, 1934) G. Chase: ‘Barbieri and the Spanish Zarzuela’, ML, xx (1939), 32–9 G. Chase: The Music of Spain (New York, 1941, 2/1959) J. Subirá: Historia de la música teatral en España (Barcelona, 1945) M. Muñoz: Historia de la zarzuela y el género chico (Madrid, 1946) J. Deleito y Piñuela: Origen y apogeo del ‘género chico’ (Madrid, 1949) R. Mindin: Die Zarzuela (Zürich, 1965) A. Fernández Cid: Cien años de teatro musical en España (1875–1975) (Madrid, 1975) J. Arnau and C.M. Gómez: Historia de la zarzuela (Madrid, 1980–81) R. Alier and others, eds.: El libro de la zarzuela (Madrid, 1982, 2/1986 as Diccionario de la zarzuela) R.J. Vázquez: The Quest for National Opera in Spain and the Reinvention of the Zarzuela (1808–1849) (diss., Cornell U., 1992) E. Casares Rodicio and C. Alonso González: La música española en el siglo XIX (Oviedo, 1995) Zarzycki, Aleksander (b Lwów, 26 Feb 1834; d Warsaw, 1 Nov 1895). Polish pianist and composer. He studied the piano in Berlin under Rudolf Viole, at the same time giving concerts with the violinist Biernacki in Poznań and Kraków (1856–7). From 1857 he studied composition under N.H. Reber and C. Reinecke in Paris, and in 1860 performed in a composers’ concert at the Salle Hertz, where he played his Grande polonaise op.7 and Piano Concerto op.17. He played in Germany and Austria (1862–3) and in 1866 gave many concerts in Warsaw; he later performed in Germany and England, and in Polish towns (1867). In 1865 he settled in Warsaw where, besides performing, he gave music lessons and composed. He was one of the founders and the first director of the Warsaw Music Society (1871–5), and after the death of Kątski he became director of the Music Institute (1879–88). Here he reorganized the teaching methods and the piano courses, employing teachers such as Paderewski. He also did much to improve the string, chamber and orchestral classes, thereby considerably raising the institute’s teaching standards. He taught a piano class himself and conducted the student orchestra. From about 1879 he was choirmaster of St John’s Cathedral, and he also gave many charity concerts. The final years of his life were devoted mainly to composition. Zarzycki’s songs imitate the style of Moniuszko (directly so in his op.13 and op.14 songbooks, which are modelled on Moniuszko’s Śpiewniki domowe); although they lack his melodic inventiveness, Zarzycki had a deeper understanding of the function of the piano in such works. His instrumental works are miniatures in a salon style and display the influence of Chopin, particularly in their use of harmony and texture. WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY SMP J. Stattler: ‘Śp. Aleksander Zarzycki’, Echo muzyczne, teatralne i artystyczne, xii (1895), 517–18 [incl. list of works], 531–2 W. Żeleński: ‘Aleksander Zarzycki: ze wspomnień osobistych’ [From personal reminiscences], Echo muzyczne, teatralne i artystyczne, xii (1895), 566–8 F. Kęcki: ‘Aleksander Zarzycki: człowiek i artysta’ [Man and artist], Muzyka Polska, ii (1935), 16–28 [with list of works] S. Śledziński, ed.: 150 lat Państwowej Wyższej Szkoły Muzycznej w Warszawie [150 years of the State High School of Music in Warsaw] (Kraków, 1960), 86–91, 113 only W. Poźniak: ‘Pieśń solowa po Moniuszce’ [The solo song after Moniuszko], Z dziejów polskiej kultury muzycznej, ii, ed. A. Nowak-Romanowicz and others (Kraków, 1966), 361–2 BARBARA CHMARA-ŻACZKIEWICZ Zasa, Paolo (fl 1639–51). Italian composer. On the title-pages of the volumes of his Selva spirituale he described himself as rector of the parish of SS Leontio e Carpoffaro at Schio, near Vicenza. The second and fourth books contain performance directions for some of the pieces. WORKS
Zaslaw, Neal (b New York, 28 June 1939). American musicologist. He graduated from Harvard College with the BA in 1961, then began graduate studies at the Juilliard School, where he studied the flute and received the MS in 1963; he was also a flautist in the American Symphony Orchestra under Stokowski, 1962–5. He took further graduate courses at Columbia University, working with Lang and receiving the MA there in 1965 and the PhD in 1970. He then taught at the City College of CUNY from 1968 to 1970. He then joined the faculty at Cornell University, where he was made Herbert Gussman professor of music in 1995, and he was a member of the graduate faculty at Juilliard, 1988–91. In addition to his academic positions he was musicological advisor and scholar-in-residence of the Lincoln Center Festival celebration of the Mozart bicentennial, editor-in-chief of Current Musicology (1967–70) and book review editor of Notes. Zaslaw’s work is imbued with a concern for music in performance. His doctoral study of Leclair establishes the composer’s style in the context of his French and his Italian training. He has worked on issues of tempo and ornamentation and particularly the early development of the orchestra. Zaslaw later turned to Mozart, co-editing a volume of wind music for the Neue Mozart-Ausgabe (VII/xvii, 1979) and writing a substantial and much admired study of the symphonies (1989), setting them in a broad context; he has also written works more general in character and other publications on performance issues. He was awarded the Austrian Ehrenkreuz für Wissenschaft in 1991 and in 1997 he was appointed Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1993 Zaslaw was invited to be principal editor of the new Köchel catalogue. WRITINGS Materials for the Life and Works of Jean-Marie Leclair L’ainé (diss., Columbia U., 1970) with M. Vinquist: Performance Practice: a Bibliography (New York, 1971) ‘A Rediscovered Mozart Autograph at Cornell University’, MJb 1971–2, 419–31 ‘Mozart’s Tempo Conventions’, IMSCR XI: Copenhagen 1972, 720–33 ‘Toward the Revival of the Classical Orchestra’, PRMA, ciii (1976–7), 158–87; repr. in The Garland Library of the History of Western Music, ed. E. Rosand, vii (New York, 1986), 274–305 ‘Music in Provence in the 14th Century’, CMc, no.25 (1978), 99–120 ‘Mozart, Haydn, and the “Sinfonia da Chiesa”’, JM, i (1982), 95–124 ‘Rameau's Operatic Apprenticeship: the First Fifty Years’, Jean-Philippe Rameau: Dijon 1983, 23–50 ‘Leopold Mozart's List of his Son's Works’, Music in the Classic Period: Essays in Honor of Barry S. Brook, ed. A. Atlas (New York, 1985), 323–74 ‘Improvised Ornamentation in Eighteenth-Century Orchestras’, JAMS, xxxix (1986), 524–77 ‘Lully's Orchestra’, Jean-Baptiste Lully: Saint Germain-en-Laye and Heidelberg 1987, 539–79 ed.: Man & Music:/Music in Society: The Classical Era (London, 1989) [incl. ‘Music and Society in the Classical Era’, 1–14] ‘The First Opera in Paris: a Study in the Politics of Art’, Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Music of the French Baroque: Essays in Honor of James R. Anthony, ed. J.H. Heyer and others (Cambridge, 1989), 7–23 Mozart’s Symphonies: Context, Performance Practice, Reception (Oxford, 1989) The Compleat Mozart: a Guide to the Musical Works (New York, 1990) ed. with F.M. Fein: The Mozart Repertory: a Guide for Musicians, Programmers, and Researchers (Ithaca, NY, 1991) ‘Scylla et Glaucus’, COJ, iv (1992), 199–228 ‘The Origins of the Classical Orchestra’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, xvii (1994), 9–40 ‘Ornaments for Corelli's Violin Sonatas, op.5’, EMc, xxiv (1996), 95–115 ed.: Mozart’s Piano Concertos: Text, Context, Interpretation (Ann Arbor, 1996) [incl. ‘Contexts for Mozart's Piano Concertos’, 7–16] ‘Audiences for Mozart's Symphonies during his Lifetime’, Israel Studies in Musicology, vi (1996), 17–32; rev. version in Festschrift Christoph-Hellmut Mahling, ed. A. Beer, K. Pfarr and W. Ruf (Tutzing, 1997), 1579–94 ‘The Breitkopf Firm's Relations with Leopold and Wolfgang Mozart’, Bach Perspectives, ii (1996), 85–103 ‘The Adagio in F major, K3 Anhang 206a = K6 Anhang A 65’, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven: … Essays in Honour of Alan Tyson, ed. S. Brandenburg (Oxford, 1998), 101–113 with J. Spitzer: The Birth of the Orchestra (Oxford, forthcoming) with C. Eisen and U. Konrad: Der neue Köchel (Leipzig, forthcoming) with R. Seletsky: Ornaments for Corelli’s Opus 5 (Madison, forthcoming) PAULA MORGAN Zäsur (Ger.: ‘caesura’). In the theory of rhythm, the point separating regular rhythmic units (phrases or ‘periods’ of four, eight, 16 bars, etc.) from one another, or marking an internal division in one of these units. It is achieved most frequently by a rest, though sometimes articulated by a fermata, by phrasing or by a change in harmony or scoring. Sometimes it is used as a synonym for Luftpause, a short pause made by a performer to separate phrases; see also Caesura.
Zatta, Antonio (fl late 18th century). Italian printer and publisher. He was in business with his sons under the name ‘Antonio Zatta e figli Librai e Stampatori veneti’, with premises in Venice ‘al traghetto di S Barnaba’; theirs was the largest engraving works in the city, their activity dating back to about 1750. The output included philosophical texts, novels, daily papers, illustrated books and 47 volumes of Carlo Goldoni’s comedies (1788). Music printing and editing began in 1783 through the Calcografia Filarmonica which was active until 1788. From 1786 the firm began printing, on its own press from engraved plates, a weekly piece of instrumental music for sale by subscription; in the following years this initiative expanded to include trios, duos, quartets, symphonies or sonatas for various instruments, and even vocal pieces, issued on a monthly basis. In the letters circulated to ‘professori e dilettanti di musica’, inviting them to become subscribers, the firm explained the preponderance of instrumental music by the fact that Italy ‘abounds without doubt more in professional and amateur players than in singers’. Instrumental works by Corelli, Bertoni, Boccherini, Capuzzi, Andreozzi, Cirri, Cambini, Pichl, Fodor, Stabinger, Grazioli, Haydn, Mozart and Salieri, and vocal pieces (arias by Cimarosa, Guglielmi, Paisiello, Anfossi, Naumann, Gazzaniga, Borghi, Traetta and Piccinni) were printed and published. Many of Zatta’s editions were reprints from German or Viennese publications, especially of Hoffmeister’s, a publisher with whom Zatta had connections. Zatta also published didactic methods (Pfeiffer, La bambina al cembalo) and music theory. After 1788 all editorial activity ceased, but Zatta continued to trade in music publications. One of Antonio’s daughters, Marina, married the publisher Sebastiano Valle, who continued the work of the Zatta family until about 1806. BIBLIOGRAPHY MischiatiI SartoriD B.M. Antolini: ‘Editori, copisti, commercio della musica in Italia, 1770–1800’, Studi musicali, xviii (1989), 287–99 MARIANGELA DONÀ Zátvrzský, Miloš. See Sádlo, Miloš. Zauberoper (Ger.: ‘magic opera’). A term, used more often by music and theatre historians than by contemporary librettists and composers, for a Singspiel with spoken dialogue that relies to an unusual extent on stage machinery and spectacular effects. In theory the term could be applied to any opera that employs magic; but in practice its use is normally restricted to the kind of magic Singspiel that was a staple of the Viennese popular repertory during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Philipp Hafner’s Megära, die förchterliche Hexe (a ‘Zauberlustspiel’, 1763) is an early example, Mozart’s Die Zauberflöte the most famous one. The Wenzel Müller-Perinet adaptation, Megera (1806) is actually subtitled ‘Zauberoper’. Müller’s Kaspar der Fagottist, and Wranitzky’s and Weber’s adaptations of Wieland’s Oberon, are typical examples of the recurrent motif of the hero being granted supernatural aids to enable him to rescue a woman in peril. The Kauer-Hensler Das Donauweibchen (1798), an Ondine variant long popular in German lands, inverts the usual formula by having magic separate the earthly lovers. Numerous operas employing magic to a more or less marked extent continued to be written and performed during the remainder of the 19th and much of the 20th century; Schreker’s Der Schmied von Gent (1932), indeed, is subtitled ‘Grosse Zauberoper’. However, the Zauberoper genre in its original and limited sense tends to exclude operas (for instance Wagner’s Ring, and the Strauss-Hofmannsthal Die Frau ohne Schatten and Die ägyptische Helena) in which, though magic plays an important part, the emphasis is primarily on more exalted concerns BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Weisstein: ‘Geschichte der Zauberpossen’, Spemanns goldenes Buch des Theaters, ed. R. Genée and others (Berlin, 1902, 2/1912) O. Rommel, ed.: Barocktradition im österreichisch-bayrischen Volkstheater, i: Die Maschinenkomödie (Leipzig, 1935/R); ii: Die romantisch-komischen Volksmärchen (Leipzig, 1936/R) O. Rommel: Die Alt-Wiener Volkskomödie (Vienna, 1952) P. Branscombe: W.A. Mozart: Die Zauberflöte (Cambridge, 1991) B. Heinel: Die Zauberoper: Studien zu ihrer Entwicklungsgeschichte anhand ausgewählter Beispiele von den Anfängen bis zum Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts (diss., U. of Freiburg, 1993) PETER BRANSCOMBE Zavaglioli, Simone (b Verona; fl 1641–4). Italian composer. He was maestro di cappella of Verona Cathedral in 1641, when his only surviving publication, Missae et sacrae laudes cum basso partim musicisque instrumentis partim vero sine instrumentis, appeared in Venice; he resigned on 2 November 1644. His volume is interesting for its mixture at quite a late date of a cappella and concertato styles. One of the three masses and four of the ten motets have the former designation. The concertato works include several with obbligato violins, one of which, Confitemini Domino, for five voices, has a sectional form: movements respectively for solo soprano and alto, bass with violins and two tenors are interspersed with an exciting, brilliantly contrapuntal tutti with an ‘Alleluia’ passage. Large-scale motets of this kind were somewhat rare by the 1640s, a ceremonial style usually being confined to mass and psalm settings. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Spagnolo: Le scuole accolitali in Verona (Verona, 1904), 122 J. Roche: North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi (Oxford, 1984) JEROME ROCHE Zavarský, Ernest (b Varov Šúr, 17 Sept 1913). Slovak musicologist. From 1933 he studied philosophy at Munich and Innsbruck, where he also took courses in composition with Fritz Wiedlich and in musicology with Walter Senn; he continued his studies in philosophy, theology, the piano and composition in Kraków (1938–9), art history, aesthetics and psychology at Bratislava University (1941–4), composition at the Janáček Academy, Brno (graduated 1952), the piano and organ in Bratislava and musicology with Jan Racek and Bohumír Štědroň at Brno University (1948–52). He took the doctorate at Brno in 1951 with a dissertation on the development of realism and harmony in Suchoň’s work. After a period as dramaturg of the Slovak Folk Theatre in Nitra (from 1941) and music correspondent for Bratislava Radio (1942–5) he visited Vienna, where he collected material for his Bella monograph; he then became director of the Slovak music centre (1945–8), archivist of the Slovak Composers’ Union (1953–8), director of the Slovak Music Information Centre, Bratislava (1965–9), director of the Slovak section of the Neue Bach-Gesellschaft (1969–73) and a member of its board of directors (from 1973). His main research has been on contemporary Slovak music, organ building and restoration, and the life and work of J.S. Bach. WRITINGS Všeobecná náuka o hudbe [General music primer] (Bratislava, 1946) [under pseud. Pavol Záhorský] Súčasná slovenská hudba [Contemporary Slovak music] (Bratislava, 1947) Vývoj realizmu a harmonického myslenia v tvorbe E. Suchoňa [The development of realism and harmony in Suchoň’s work] (diss., U. of Brno, 1951) Eugen Suchoň: profil skladateľs [Suchoň: profile of the composer] (Bratislava, 1955) Ján Levoslav Bella: život a dielo [Bella: life and work] (Bratislava, 1955) ‘Základné otázky pri stavbe organov’ [Basic questions of organ building], Duchovný pastier, xxxii (1955), nos.8–10; xxiii (1956), no.1 Prehľad dejín slovenskej hudby [Short history of Slovak music] (Prague, 1956) Eugen Suchoň a jeho opera Krútňava [Suchoň and his opera The Whirlpool] (Bratislava, 1957) ‘Beiträge zur Musikgeschichte der Stadt Kremnitz/Slowakei’, Musik des Ostens, ii (1963), 112–25; iii (1965), 72–89; iv (1967), 117–35 Maurice Ravel (Bratislava, 1963) ‘Zum Pedalspiel des jungen Johann Sebastian Bach’, Mf, xviii (1965), 370 ‘Zur angeblichen Pressburger Herkunft der Familie Bach’, BJb 1967, 21–7 Johann Sebastian Bach: das Leben, das Werk, das Leben des Werkes (Bratislava, 1971, 2/1985; Eng. trans., 1973) ‘J.S. Bachs Entwurf für den Umbau der Orgel in der Kirche Divi Blasii’, Bach-Studien, v (1975), 82–93 ‘Beiträge zur Musikgeschichte der Stadt Kremnitz’, Musik des Ostens, vii (1975), 7–173
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, op.6 (Berlin, 1881); 3 études de concert, op.7 (Mainz, 1881); Mazurek koncertowy, c, op.8 (Mainz, 1882); Fantaisie polonaise, op.9, c1877 (Mainz, 1882); Polonaise mélancolique, op.10 (Mainz, 1882); Polonaise triomphale, pf 4 hands, op.11 (Mainz, 1882); Divertissement à la polonaise, pf 4 hands, op.12 (Mainz, 1883); Les roses et les épines, op.13 (Mainz, 1883); impromptu-caprice, op.14 (Leipzig, 1883); Mazurka de concert no.2, g 
, pf, orch, op.7, 1859–60 (Leipzig, c1865); Pf Conc., A 