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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Zhivotov, Aleksey Semyonovich
(b Kazan', 1/14 Nov 1904; d Leningrad, 27 Aug 1964). Russian composer. In 1930 he completed studies at the Leningrad Conservatory with Shcherbachyov. He was a committee member of the Leningrad Composers' Union (1941–4, from 1948) and received the title Honoured Artist of the RSFSR in 1957. His reputation rests chiefly on his song cycles and also on the highly modernist Fragmentï. WORKS (selective list)
BIBLIOGRAPHY BDRSC L. Sitsky: Music of the Repressed Russian Avant-Garde, 1900–1929 (Westport, CT, 1994), 318–25 DETLEF GOJOWY Zhol-khang, bSod-nams Dar-rgyas (b Lhasa, 1922). Tibetan teacher and researcher. He came from an aristocratic family and showed interest in folksongs and dances from an early age. At 16 he entered the Nang-ma'i sKyid-sdug society and studied a range of instruments, especially the pi-wang (fiddle) and the sgra-snyan (lute); his main teachers were Bai Walli and A-jo rNam-rgyal. In 1978 he was appointed music teacher at what was to become Tibet University in Lhasa. He then became vice-director of its arts department and vice-chairman of the Tibet Music Association. With the gar master Pa-sangs Don-grub, he played an important role in the resurrection of Tibetan music, particularly traditional music theory and nang-ma and stod-gzhas forms, although his expertise ranges over all the Tibetan performing arts. He sat at most of the government conferences on traditional performing arts. Together with Garpa Tashi Tsering he is an important figure in the revival of nang-ma music in Tibet. Most of the nang-ma that is played in Lhasa nowadays has been taught by Zhol-khang. He is considered the authority on the subject and has published two books, twelve articles in Tibetan journals and one series of recordings. WRITINGS ‘Bod kyi glu gzhas sgra-sbyong gyi dbyangs kyi rnam-gzhag rags-tsam brjod-pa’ [Brief discussion on the principles of sound in the voice training for Tibetan songs], Bod kyi rtsom-rig sgyu-rtsal [Tibetan literature] (1998), no.4, pp.63–9 Glu gar tshangs-pa'i chab-rgyun [The tradition of pure songs and dances] (Lhasa, 1992) ‘Nang-ma'i skyid-sdug byung-'phel gyi lo-rgyus zhib-par gleng-ba’ [Detailed discussion on the history of the Nangme Kyidu], Bod-ljongs sgyu-rtsal zhib-'jug [Tibetan arts studies] (1993), no.2, pp.1–17 ‘Nang-ma bkra-la shis-pa las ‘phros te nang-ma'i gzhas kyi sgrig-gzhi dang khyad-chos skor brjod-pa’ [From the nang-ma song ‘Talashiba’: discussion on the structure and characteristics of the nang-ma songs], Bod-ljongs sgyu-rtsal zhib-‘jug (1995), no.1, 33–42 RECORDINGS Gangs-can gna'-bo'i dbyangs-snyan [Tibetan classical music], ed. dGe‘dun, Bod-ljongs sgra-brnyan par-skrun-khang [Tibet music and video publishing house] (1985) [incl. ‘sTod-gzhas nang-ma’, perf. Zhol-khang bSod-nams Dar-rgyas and ‘mChod-sprin gar-rol’, perf. Gar-dpon Pa-sangs Don-grub] ISABELLE HENRION-DOURCY Zhong. Bronze bell of the Han Chinese, used mainly in ritual music. Early Chinese bells are of many sub-types, differentiated by shape of the cross-section (leaf-shaped, elliptical or round), curve of the ‘mouth’ (concave or flat), lateral profile (elongated or broad), method and angle of suspension (vertical, oblique or hand-held upright) and method of striking (internal clapper or external beater). The term zhong is used both as a general reference to all clapperless bells (including bo, nao and zheng) and as a specific reference to one sub-type. Bells with internal clappers are generally called ling. Metal used in most Chinese bell construction is an alloy of three or more parts of copper to one part of tin. Structures and types. (i) Zhong. The bell specifically identified as zhong has a leaf-shaped cross-section (oblate ellipsoid), concave mouth (or rim) and a slightly expanding profile from the crown outward (fig.1). Suspension methods are of two types. Most common among ancient bells is the elongated handle or shank (yong) extending out from the crown, with a small ring at its base from which the bell is suspended at an oblique angle. The second suspension method is by a loop (niu), from which the bell hangs vertically (rather than diagonally). Both types are suspended in a frame, together with other bells in a set (bianzhong), and struck externally with a beater. While most zhong measure between 15 and 40 cm in total height, some are as small as c9 cm and as large as c153 cm. Outer surfaces are typically decorated with raised rectangular ribs, repetitive claw-like (or horn-like) designs and protruding knobs or ‘nipples’ – typically four clusters (two on each side of the bell) containing nine knobs each. The early sets were tuned by maintaining uniform thickness while varying the size (smaller bells producing a higher pitch). The most distinctive acoustical feature of bells in this shape is their ability to produce two pitches, commonly (but not always) a minor 3rd apart: one pitch when struck at the lower centre, the other at an area between the centre and left or right lower corner. (ii) Bo. The bo bell typically has an elliptical or round cross-section (though some are leaf-shaped), a flat mouth, and a loop on its crown for vertical suspension. Unlike the zhong bell, it is capable of sounding only a single pitch. On older bo bells, the outer surface is also more elaborately decorated than the zhong, with abstract zoomorphic designs and hangers in the shape of dragons or other auspicious animals (fig.2). Most single bo bells are about 40 cm in height, though some are as large as about 112 cm. When constructed in sets (also called bianzhong), bo-type bells are usually of uniform size but of varying thickness (bells with thicker metal producing a higher pitch). (iii) Other bells. Remaining Chinese bell types, such as nao, zheng, chun, ling and duo, are mostly historic relics. The ancient nao, most similar in appearance to the zhong, is relatively short and broad, without clapper, and usually decorated with taotie (stylized animal face) masks on both sides. Most small nao bells were clearly designed to be held by the handle mouth upward and struck with a beater. As shown by Tong Kin-woon, large nao bells (70 cm or more in height, sometimes identified as yong) were most likely mounted on poles. The zheng bell has the appearance of a thin, elongated zhong; it was held and struck like the nao. The chun, which is the most dissimilar from the above sub-types, has a round cross-section, with a crown larger than its rim, and a niu-type hanger usually in the shape of a tiger or horse. Small bells with internal clappers, such as ling (with a loop on its crown and a flange on one or both sides) and duo (a bell externally resembling the nao and larger than the ling), were designed to be hand-held and shaken. History and usage. The earliest clapperless bells found in China, uncovered in Shaanxi province sites and dating to about 2100 bce, are made entirely of clay. Virtually nothing is known about their usage. Bells constructed of bronze, notably nao and zheng, first appeared during the late Shang dynasty (13th–11th centuries bce). Numerous small nao bells have been found in Henan province and elsewhere on the Central Plain, often in sets of three and five; very large single nao bells have also been found. The Zhouli states that ‘the metal nao is used to stop the drum’, implying use by army commanders for the purpose of signalling. Since nao bells also appeared in tuned sets, they may have been used for ceremonial occasions as well. The bell known as zhong, with its longer body, distinctive decorative features and mouth-downward oblique suspension, emerged during the Zhou dynasty (11th–3rd centuries bce). Zhong bells were normally constructed in tuned sets (bianzhong) for melodic performance. During the 20th century, uncountable numbers of these sets were broken up and sold piece by piece to art dealers outside China. Of the sets still intact, most noteworthy are those found at Changtaiguan Tomb #1 and the tomb site of the Marquis Yi of the Zeng state. The 13-bell Changtaiguan set, found in a mid-Zhou site in Henan province, is now kept at the Chinese Historical Museum in Beijing. The bells are of varying size, each producing two pitches distributed within a two-octave range (allowing limited chromatic capability), and suspended by niu loops mouth downward from an elaborately decorated frame. More spectacular in size, decoration and diversity is the 65-piece bianzhong found at the tomb of Marquis Yi of the Zeng state, a 5th-century bce site in Hubei province, now kept at the Hubei Provincial Museum (see China, §II, 2). The bells in this set are of three different types, suspended from a three-tiered frame: 45 very large yong-type zhong on the lower two tiers, 19 niu-type zhong on the upper tier, and a single bo bell in the middle of the bottom tier. The pitch range spans five octaves, with full chromatic capability in the middle three octaves. By the Song dynasty (960–1279), the use of bianzhong in ritual performances had become more or less standardized, but several elements had changed. As seen in 12th-century Chinese instruments preserved in Korea (P’yonjong) and other sources, sets of bells usually totalled 16, suspended in a two-tiered frame. Most bianzhong sets from this period onward are of the bo construction, with same-sized barrel-shaped (or other related) profiles, niu hangers and flat mouths. Furthermore, these single-pitched bells were tuned chromatically over a range of one octave and a minor 3rd (for a 16-bell set). Two bianzhong sets dating from the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), with 16 bo-type bells tuned in this manner, are preserved at the Palace Museum and Confucian shrine in Beijing. The prevailing bell types of the Qing period are still employed in the Confucian ritual celebrations in Taiwan, though occasionally the ancient Zhou-style bells are used as well. BIBLIOGRAPHY J. Fontein and Tung Wu: Unearthing China’s Past (Boston, 1973) N. Spear, jr: A Treasury of Archaeological Bells (New York, 1978) Huang Xiangpeng and others: ‘Suixian chutu yinyue wenwu zhuanji’ [Special issue on the musical relics excavated in Suixian], Yinyue yanjiu (1981), no.1 Tong Kin-woon: Shang Musical Instruments (diss., Wesleyan U., 1983); repr. in AsM, xiv/2 (1983), no.2, pp.17–182; xv (1983), no.1, pp.103–84; xv (1984), no.2, pp.67–143 Shen Sin-yan: ‘The Acoustics of the Bian-Zhong Bell Chimes of China’, Chinese Music, ix (1986), no.3, pp.53–7; no.4, pp.73–8; x (1987), no.1, pp.10–19 Liu Dongsheng and others, eds.: Zhongguo yueqi tuzhi [Pictorial record of Chinese musical instruments] (Beijing, 1987) Liu Dongsheng and Yuan Quanyou, eds.: Zhongguo yinyue shi tujian [Pictorial guide to the history of Chinese music] (Beijing, 1988), 17–49 Liu Dongsheng, ed.: Zhongguo yueqi tujian [Pictorial guide to Chinese instruments] (Ji'nan, 1992), 62–93 L. von Falkenhausen: Suspended Music: Chime-Bells in the Culture of Bronze Age China (Berkeley, 1993) Li Chunyi: Zhongguo shanggu chutu yueqi zonglun [Survey of ancient excavated musical instruments in China] (Beijing, 1996) Zhongguo yinyue wenwu daxi [Compendium of Chinese musical artefacts] (Zhengzhou, 1996–) ALAN R. THRASHER Zhou Long (b Beijing, 8 July 1953). Chinese-American composer. Born to artistic parents, he began piano lessons at an early age. During the Cultural Revolution he was sent to work on a rural state farm. He enrolled in Beijing’s Central Conservatory of Music when it reopened in 1977 and completed the doctorate in 1993 at Columbia University, where his teachers included Chou Wen-chung, George Edwards and Mario Davidovsky. In 1989 he became the director of Music from China (New York). Among his honours are awards and fellowships from the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters, the Guggenheim and Koussevitzky foundations, the International Composition Competition (d’Avray, France, 1991) and the BBC Masterprize competition (1998). He is married to the composer Chen Yi. Although many of Zhou’s early works are characterized by folk-like melodies and tonal harmonies, he was quick to explore new media and extended instrumental techniques after his arrival in the USA. His later style mediates Chinese musical traditions and free atonal composition. In addition to combining Chinese and Western instruments in some ensemble works, he has experimented with electronic techniques, and written new music for traditional Chinese ‘silk and bamboo’ ensemble. A number of chamber works show the influence of Buddhist thought. WORKS (selective list)
BIBLIOGRAPHY CC1 (Chen Yi) V.M. Lei: Wu Ji for Piano and Synthesized Sounds (diss., U. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1990) JOANNA C. LEE Zhou Xinfang (b Qingjiang, Jiangsu province, 14 Jan 1895; d Shanghai, 8 March 1975). Chinese actor. A specialist in laosheng (old male) roles, Zhou first performed in such a role in Hangzhou, the Zhejiang province capital, at the age of seven, and in 1907 acted in Shanghai. In 1908 he went for training to Beijing's Fuliancheng School, and there got to know and became lifelong friends with Mei Lanfang. He left Beijing soon after, spending most of his career in Shanghai. He supported the Communists after 1949, being a member of the National People's Congress for over a decade and joining the Communist Party in 1959. Zhou was deeply involved in politics and used the stage for political causes, especially against the Japanese. Despite his left-wing sympathies he was persecuted as a reactionary when the Cultural Revolution erupted in 1966. Zhou created many new roles. His singing was noted much more for its expressive quality than the beauty of its sound, some even calling his voice gritty. In 1956 a film on his artistic life was issued in Shanghai. BIBLIOGRAPHY And other resources Su Yi and others: Zhongguo jingju shi [The history of Beijing opera in China], ii (Beijing, 1990), 543–51 Xu Jinwen ed.: Zhou Xinfang yanchu juben changqiang ji [Collected vocal melodies from librettos performed by Zhou Xinfang] (Shanghai, 1986) Shen Hongxin: Zhou Xinfang zhuan [Biography of Zhou Xinfang] (Shijiazhuang, 1996) Recordings Zhongguo xiqu yishujia changqiang xuan, 12: Zhou Xinfang [Selected vocal melodies of Chinese opera artists, 12: Zhou Xinfang], ed. Zhongguo yishu yanjiuyuan Xiqu yanjiusuo, China Record Co. HD-38 (1982) COLIN MACKERRAS |
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