East and South-east Asia.

It is clear from Chinese archaeological finds and historic citations that zithers were already major instrument types in China by the mid-Zhou dynasty (c7th–5th centuries bce). That they were known many centuries earlier is apparent from the pictographic character of about the 12th century bce for yue (meaning ‘music’), a graph depicting silk strings over wood. Other string instrument types were not known in China until later periods. There are several early zither types still in use, all of which have been found in Zhou burial sites and cited in texts from the ancient Shijing onward. Of these, the bridgeless Qin (pronounced ‘chin’) is unquestionably the most highly venerated. Having emerged from earlier (generally smaller) models, the qin of today, with a soundbox of irregular shape (c120 cm in length) and seven silk strings, was in recognizable form by about the 3rd century ce. Perhaps because of its close association with Confucian ideology and the values of the literati class, the qin was not widely known outside of China.

The zither se is a generally larger instrument, with rectangular soundbox, 25 strings and a bridge under each string. Early se zithers found in Zhou and Han sites are short (c100–20 cm) and broad (c40 cm), their length increasing to nearly double this (c200 cm) by the 18th century. The primary function of the se throughout history has been mostly restricted to the ritual tradition of the imperial courts.

Third among the major Chinese zithers is the Zheng, an instrument shorter and thinner than the present-day se, with variable string numbers (12 or 13 during the 8th century) and a bridge under each string. The early 20th-century Chaozhou style of zheng (south China) is close in size to the qin (c110–20 cm), though with highly arched soundboard and 16 metal strings; the late 20th-century style is considerably longer (c160 cm), with more gently arched soundboard and 18 or 21 metal strings. The zheng is a ‘popular’ (i.e. non-ritual) instrument, with a large solo and chamber repertory. Its influence upon other East Asian zither traditions has been considerable. Less significant of the Chinese zithers are the ancient five-string zhu (for which specimens have been found in Zhou sites) and the medieval multi-string bowed yazheng (still marginally preserved in Hebei province).

Numerous related zithers subsequently emerged among other Asian cultures, most being adaptations of Chinese types. The Japanese koto and Korean kayagum were among the earliest, both appearing by the 8th century ce, possibly earlier. The 13-string Koto (c180 cm) with movable bridge under each string is a clear adaptation of the 13-string Tang-style zheng. While the word koto is Japanese, it is written with the same Chinese graph for zheng, and it shares significant repertory characteristics as well. The Korean 12-string Kayagŭm is shorter (c145 cm for the sanjo kayagŭm), with tall wooden bridges and stylized carvings of ‘ram's horns’ at the lower end of the instrument. Distantly related to the koto is the Japanese Wagon (c190 cm), a six-string zither with movable bridges. The wagon is documented from the 2nd century ce onwards and is believed by scholars to be indigenous to Japan. Two other Korean zithers, the komun'go and ajaeng, are more idiosyncratic. The six-string komun'go (c150–60 cm) has 16 broad, fixed frets glued to the soundboard, and three movable bridges. Appearing in 7th-century-ce tomb paintings, it was possibly derived from the Chinese ‘horizontal’ konghou (which was a zither in appearance if not in name). The seven-string ajaeng (c160 cm) with movable bridges is unusual in that it is bowed with a rosined stick (rather than plucked). Appearing between the 10th and 14th centuries, the ajaeng was clearly derived from the Chinese yazheng.

In cultures to the north and to the south of China, other related zither traditions emerged from about the 14th century onwards. Among Mongolian people the yatga zither (c160 cm), with between ten and 13 strings, has been in use since this period. In Thailand the three-string, fretted čhakhē (literally ‘crocodile’, c130 cm), used in the traditional mahōrī ensemble, appears to reflect both Indian and Chinese influences. The 16-string Vietnamese Dàn tranh (90–110 cm), however, is identical in all essential features to the Chaozhou-style zheng of south China, from where it was introduced.

There are yet other Asian zithers which are less clearly related to the above types. The most ancient are probably the various tube zithers marginally preserved among peoples of the Pacific islands. Constructed from tubular sections of stout bamboo, their multiple strings are usually raised up from the bamboo surface itself (i.e. idiochordal) and plucked with the fingers of both hands or struck with a stick. Examples include the kolitong (or kulibit and known by many other names) in the Philippines (c60 cm), the rare celempung bambu in West Java (c80 cm) and the zharong (Chinese: zhuqin, ‘bamboo qin’) among the Yao and other tribal peoples of south-west China. Zither types very possibly similar to these were reported in the 2nd-century-ce Chinese dictionary Shuowen jiezi as being constructed from a bamboo tube and possessing five strings.

Finally, among the tribal peoples of South-east Asia there are very unusual single-string zithers. The Thai phīn is a short stick zither (c80 cm) with one or two metal strings and an attached half-gourd resonator. It bears close similarities to Indian zithers, notably the early bin (or vina) from which its name derives. Another is the Dàn bau (c100 cm) of minority peoples of northern Vietnam and south-west China, a box zither with a single metal string attached to a flexible stem (for pitch control), and performed on the harmonic series.

Zither

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (J.H. van der Meer; also ‘Zithermusik’, J. Bandlmeier)

SachsH

C. Douwes: Grondig ondersoek van de toonen der musijk (Franeker, 1699/R, 1970 with introduction, notes and bibliography by P. Williams)

J.E. Bennert: Illustrierte Geschichte der Zither (Luxembourg, 1881)

R. Baczinski: Für Freunde der Zither (Tölz, 1884)

H. Kennedy: Die Zither in der Vergangenheit, Gegenwart und Zukunft (Tölz, 1896)

J. Christ: Darstellung der Zither in ihrem Wesen und ihrer Geschichte (Trier, c1900)

H. Thauer: Katechismus des modernen Zitherspiels (Leipzig, 1902)

A. Forrer: Zitherschule für die glarner Zither (St Gallen, 1905)

P.N. Hasluck, ed.: Violins and Other Stringed Instruments: How to Make them (London, 1906)

B. Thorsteinnson: Í slezk thjódhlög [Icelandic ballads] (Copenhagen, 1906–9) [with notes on music]

C. Maclean: ‘The Zither (Bavarian Highlands)’, ZIMG, x (1908–9), 341–9

A.C. Moule: ‘A List of the Musical and Other Sound-Producing Instruments of the Chinese’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, North China Branch, xxxix (1908), 1–160, esp. 106–12; repr. separately (Buren, 1989)

A. Hammerich: Das musikhistorische Museum zu Kopenhagen: beschreibender Katalog (Copenhagen and Leipzig, 1911)

G. Kinsky: Musikhistorisches Museum von Wilhelm Heyer in Cöln: Katalog, ii (Cologne, 1912)

E.M. Hornbostel and C. Sachs: ‘Systematik der Musikinstrumente’, Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xlvi (1914), 553–90; Eng. trans. in GSJ, xiv (1961), 3–29

H. Panum: Middelalderens strengeinstrumenter (Copenhagen, 1915–31; Eng. trans., rev., c1940/R)

H. Panum: Langelegen som dansk folkeinstrument (Copenhagen, 1918)

G. Montandon: La généalogie des instruments de musique et les cycles de civilisation (Geneva, 1919)

L. Edlmann: Die Wahrheit über die Zither (Vienna, 1923)

M.W. Shoemaker: The Music and Musical Instruments of the Pennsylvania Mountaineers (Altoona, PA, 1923)

F. Fiedler: Illustriertes Lexikon der deutschen Zitherschaft (Munich, 1924)

A.V. Nikl: Die Zither: ihre historische Entwicklung bis zur Gegenwart (Vienna, 1927)

C. Sachs: Geist und Werden der Musikinstrumente (Berlin, 1929/R)

K.G. Izikowitz: ‘Les instruments de musique des indiens Uro-Chipaya’, Revista del Instituto de etnología de la Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, ii (1931–2), 263–91

T. Norlind, ed.: Systematik der Saiteninstrumente, i: Geschichte der Zither (Stockholm, 1936)

H. In der Gand: ‘Volkstümliche Musikinstrumente der Schweiz’, Schweizer Archiv für Volkskunde, xxxvi (1937–8), 73–120

J.L. de Jong: De noardske balke (Assen, 1942)

M.H. Chehab: ‘Les terres cuites de Kharayeb’, Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth, x (1951–2), esp.38, 99–100, 148; xi (1953–4) [whole vols.]

A. Edelman: ‘Die Toggenburger Halszither’, Internationale Zeitschrift für Literatur, bildende Kunst, Musik und Wissenschaft, ii (1952)

S. Martí: Instrumentos musicales precortesianos (Mexico City, 1955, 2/1968)

T. Alexandru: Instrumentele muzicale ale poporului romîn (Bucharest, 1956) [incl. Fr. and Russ. summary]

K.M. Klier: Volkstümliche Musikinstrumente in den Alpen (Kassel, 1956)

J. Grossier: ‘L'épinette dans la vallée des lacs’, Au pays des lacs: arts et traditions des Hautes-Vosges (Gérardmer, 1960)

J.F. Putnam: The Plucked Dulcimer and How to Play it (Berea, KY, 1961, 2/1964)

K. Hayashi: Dongya yueqi kao [Study of East Asian musical instruments] (Beijing, 1962/R), 131–209

J. Brandlmeier: Handbuch der Zither (Munich, 1963)

P.P. Hornof: Volkstümliche Raffele Schule (Innsbruck, 1963)

K. Vertkov, G. Blagodatov and E. Yazovitskaya: Atlas muzïkal'nïkh instrumentov narodov SSSR [Atlas of the musical instruments of the peoples of the USSR] (Moscow, 1963, 2/1975 with 4 discs and Eng. summary)

L. Picken: ‘Early Chinese Friction-Chordophones’, Galpin Society Journal, xviii (1965), 82–9

A. Baines: European and American Musical Instruments (London, 1966/R)

F. Stradner: ‘Eine alte Scheitholz-Zither’, ÖMz, xxi (1966), 454–9

K. Hayashi and others: Shōsōin no gakki [Musical instruments in the Shōsōin] (Tokyo, 1967)

B. Sárosi: Die Volksmusikinstrumente Ungarns (Leipzig, 1967)

J. Manga: Magyar népdalok, népi hangszerek (Budapest, 1969; Eng. trans., rev., 1969, 3/1988)

F. Stradner: ‘Vom Scheitholz zur Kratz-Zither’, Jb des österreichischen Volksliedwerkes, xviii (1969), 66–80

K. Vertkov: ‘Beiträge zur Geschichte der russischen Guslitypen’, Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis, I: Brno 1967, 134–41

F.J. de Hen: ‘Folk Instruments of Belgium, Part One’, GSJ, xxv (1972), 87–132, esp. 112

J. Hickerson, ed.: A Bibliography of Hammered and Plucked (Appalachian or Mountain) Dulcimers and Related Instruments (Washington DC, 1973)

B. Geiser: ‘Die Zithern der Schweiz’, Glareana: Nachrichten der Gesellschaft der Freunde alter Musikinstrumente, xxiii/4 (1974), 42–87

L. Kunz: Die Volksmusikinstrumente der Tschechoslowakei, i: Die tschechischen Volksmusikinstrumente (Leipzig, 1974)

H. Boone: ‘De hommel in de Lage Landen’, Brussels Museum of Musical Instruments Bulletin, v (1975), 9–151 [incl. important bibliography]

S. Marcuse: A Survey of Musical Instruments (Newton Abbot and New York, 1975)

D. Kettlewell: ‘Dulcimers, Zithers and Psalteries on Record’, Folk Review, v/12 (1976), 7 only

L. Kunz: ‘Scheitholt – Kobza: ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der volkstümlichen Zitherinstrumente in den böhmischen Ländern’, Casopis moravsleho muzea, lxiii (1978), 227–55

R. Mok: ‘Ancient Musical Instruments Unearthed in 1972 from the Number One Han Tomb at Ma Wang Tui, Changsha: Translation and Commentary of Chinese Reports’, AsM, x/1 (1978), 39–91

Y. Mitani: A Study of Long-zithers and their Music in the far East (Tokyo, 1980)

B. Bachmann-Geiser: Die Volksmusikinstrumente der Schweiz (Leipzig, 1981)

O. Elschek: Die Volksmusikinstrumente der Tschechoslowakei, ii: Die slowakischen Volksmusikinstrumente (Leipzig, 1983)

Tong Kin-woon: Shang Musical Instruments (diss., Wesleyan U., IL, 1983); repr. in AsM, xiv/2 (1982–3), 17–182; xv (1983–4), no.1, pp.103–84; no.2, pp.67–143

Yuan Bingchang and Mao Jizeng, eds.: Zhongguo shaoshu minzu yueqi zhi [Dictionary of musical instruments of the Chinese minorities] (Beijing, 1986), 193–5, 249–60

K. Junger: ‘Die Zither: Entwicklung eines Instruments und seiner Besaitung’, Das Musikinstrument, xxxvi (1987), 68–75

Liu Dongsheng and others, eds.: Zhongguo yueqi tuzhi [Pictorial record of Chinese musical instruments] (Beijing, 1987)

Liu Dongsheng and Yuan Quanyou, eds.: Zhongguo yinyue shi tujian [Pictorial guide to the history of Chinese music] (Beijing, 1988)

M. Baltr­nien­ and R. Apanavičius: Lietuviu liaudies muzikos instrumentai (Vilnius, 1991)

W. Breckle: ‘Die Entwicklung der Zither als Volksinstrument’, Gut Klang: 100 Jahre Zitherklub Dachau, ed. W. Breckle, H. Müller and H. Heres (Dachau, 1991)

Liu Dongsheng, ed.: Zhongguo yueqi tujian [Pictorial guide to Chinese instruments] (Ji'nan, 1992), 180–209, 262–5

L. Mühlemann: Die Grosse Familie der Zithern (Oberthal, 1993)

J. Folprecht: Citera maj Nastroj: Citera v Cechách, na Morave a ve Sleszku (Brno, 1995)

V.D. Laturell, ed.: ‘Die Zither is a Zauberin …’: Zwei Jahrhunderte Zither in München (Munich, 1995)

A. Michel: Zithern: Musikinstrumente zwischen Volkskultur und Bürgerlichkeit: Katalog: Musikinstrumenten-Museum der Universität Leipzig (Leipzig, 1995)

B. Wackernagel: Europäische Zupf- und Streichinstrumente, Hackbretter und Äolsharfen: Deutsches Museum München, Musikinstrumentensammlung Katalog (Frankfurt, 1997)

A. Thrasher: Chinese Musical Instruments (Hong Kong, 2000)

Zither harp.

See Harp zither.

Zitôle

(Ger.).

See Citole.

Zitter

(Ger.).

See Cittern.

Ziv, Mikhail Pavlovich

(b Moscow, 25 May 1921; d Moscow, 30 May 1994). Russian composer. He graduated in 1947 from the Moscow Conservatory (where he studied composition with Kabalevsky), having taught theory at the music college attached to the conservatory since 1944. His output is chiefly associated with the stage, cinema and television. He worked for the Sovremennik, MKhAT and Chekhov theatres, and his scores were all performed in theatres in either Moscow, Leningrad, Sverdlovsk or other Russian cities. He wrote the scores for more than 40 films, including Ballada o soldate (‘Ballad about a Soldier’) and Chistoye nebo (‘A Clear Sky’) which were both directed by G. Chukhrayem and which were popular during the Krushchyov thaw. Ziv also wrote the music for more than 20 cartoons and television films. His style is oriented towards the aesthetics and vocabulary of socialist realism; his music is marked by sincerity, vivid melodic content, emotionalism and a capacity for direct communication. He wrote a number of articles about Galïnina, Kabalevsky and Shchedrin.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Nastoyashchiy muzhchina [A Real Man] (operetta), 1965; Pervaya lyubov' [First Love] (ballet), 1967; O Subbota [Oh, Saturday] (op), 1968; Sïn korolevskogo ministra [The Son of the King's Minister] (comic op), 1973; Lopushek u Lukomor'ya [The Simpleton on the Seashore] (children's op), 1975; Gospoda artistï [Messieurs, Artistes] (operetta), 1981; Semero soldatikov [7 Little Soldiers] (operetta), 1984

Inst: Str Qt [no.1], orch, 1945; Sym. [no.1], orch, 1946; Pf Qnt, 1947; Prazdnichnaya [The Festive], suite, orch, 1949; Na slavyanskiye temï [On Slavic Themes], suite, orch, 1950; Str Qt [no.2], 1955; Sinfonietta [no.1], orch, 1958; Sym. [no.2], orch, 1960; Sinfonietta [no.2], orch, 1962; Sym. [no.3], orch, 1968

Other works incl.: Bïli nebïlitsï [True Tall Stories] (orat, L. Tolstoy), 1972; a cappella choruses, songs, incid music, over 40 film scores, TV scores, 20 cartoon scores, pf works

BIBLIOGRAPHY

N. Drobïshevskaya: ‘Zametki o radioprem'yerakh’ [Notes about radio premières], SovM (1974), no.12, pp.91–2

S. Savenko: ‘Kontrastnaya programma, kontrastnïye vpechatleniya’ [A contrasting programme and contrasting impressions], SovM (1976), no.8, pp.88–9

T. Didenko: ‘Semero soldatikov’ [7 little soldiers], SovM (1985), no.10, pp.36–8

M. Raku: Mikhail Ziv: dialog o muzïke [A dialogue about music] (Moscow, 1994)

LYUDMILA KORABEL'NIKOVA

Živković, Milenko

(b Belgrade, 25 May 1901; d Belgrade, 29 June 1964). Serbian composer, musicologist, teacher and conductor. He studied at the Stanković Music School in Belgrade, where he also graduated in law in 1924; his composition studies were continued with Grabner at the Leipzig Conservatory (1925–9) and with d’Indy at the Schola Cantorum (1929–31). He directed the Stanković Music School (1937–47) and taught at the Belgrade Academy of Music (1937–64), where he was professor of composition, rector (1951–7) and dean (1957–60). At the latter institution he was responsible for the training of many who later became leading composers. In 1958 he was elected to corresponding membership of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. His compositions treat folk elements in a modern harmonic style, and his treatise on harmony is an original contribution.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Zelena godina [Green Year] (ballet scenes), 1937; Decja soba [Children’s Room] (children’s op), 1940

Orch: Simfonijski prolog, 1932; Svita iz Rugova [Suite from Rugovo], 1957

Choral: Vizantijska liturgija [Byzantine Liturgy], male chorus, 1932; Rođenje Vesne [Vesna’s Birth] (cant.), 1934; Igre iz Makedonije [Dances from Macedonia], chorus, orch, 1947; a cappella pieces

Pf works, incl. Juznoslovenske seljacke igre [Yugoslav Peasant Dances], 1940

Songs, film scores, incid music

Principal publishers: Prosveta, Srpska Akademija Nauka i Umetnosti

WRITINGS

Umetnost horskog pevanja [The art of choral singing] (Novi Sad, 1946)

Nauka o harmoniji (Belgrade, 1947, 1953)

Rukoveti Stevana Mokranjca (Belgrade, 1957)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Pejović: Pedeset godina Muzicke skole ‘Stanković’ u Beogradu 1911–1961 [Fifty years of the Stanković Music School in Belgrade] (Belgrade, 1961)

S. Đurić-Klajn, E. Josif and P. Milošević: ‘Milenko Živković: in memoriam’, Zvuk (1965), no.63, pp.300–09

V. Pericić: Muzicki stvaraoci u Srbiji [Musical creators in Serbia] (Belgrade, 1969)

S. Đurić-Klajn: Serbian Music through the Ages (Belgrade, 1972)

K. Babić: ‘In memoriam Milenko Zivković’, Zvuk (1984), no.3, pp.55–6

STANA DURIC-KLAJN

Živković, Mirjana

(b Split, 3 May 1935). Serbian composer. She studied composition with Rajičić at the Belgrade Academy of Music (graduation, 1964) and later studied with Messiaen and Boulanger in Paris (1967–8). She was appointed professor of theory at Belgrade, and has published essays on harmony and counterpoint as well as analytical studies of works by 20th-century Serbian composers. Her early compositions include neo-Baroque features, though their atonal language is also to some extent Expressionist. Later works, such as Zaboravljeni kontrapunkt (‘Forgotten Counterpoint’, 1980), show a greater economy of means and speak more directly.

WORKS

(selective list)

Sinfonia poliphonica, orch, 1964; Passacaglia, vn, 1965; Symphonic Torso, orch, 1967; Basma [Incantations], Mez, 4 timp, 1968; Koncertantne metamorfoze, pf, orch, 1974; 4 pohvale [4 Praises], Mez, pf, 1975; Glasovi [Voices], hpd/pf, 1979; Zaboravljeni kontrapunkt [Forgotten Counterpoint], S, A, T, B, 1980; Iz ničije zemlje [Out of Nobody’s Land], Mez, pf, 1991

MELITA MILIN

Živný, Vojtěch [Ziwny, Wojciech; Żiwny].

See Żywny, Wojciech.

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