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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Methods and Its Relations to Other Sciences Language educationСтр 1 из 7Следующая ⇒
Pre- communicative methods of teaching foreign languages. Speaking Speaking exists in two forms: dialogue and monologue. The aim of our work is: to observe the speech as a bilateral process; to give the basic notions of the speech; to make an examples of exercises in of speaking and hearing. Practical value of this paper is determined by the fact that the developed material and proper tasks and exercises make available the use of this work as a manual in teaching a foreign language at classroom or as a given homework, or as a useful material for elective additional courses of foreign language at school. The paper consists of introduction and two chapters followed by conclusion. The first chapter is about the most common difficulties in teaching speaking a foreign language. Also it consists of speaking activities in the non-english speaking classroom. Further we find differences between prepared and unprepared speech and in this chapter we learn to find mistakes of pupils and how to correct them. In the second chapter are given technologies that we can use in teaching speech. 4 билет. Common noun A common noun is a noun that refers to people or things in general, e.g. boy, country, bridge, city, birth, day, happiness. Proper noun A proper noun is a name that identifies a particular person, place, or thing, e.g. Steven, Africa, London, Monday. In written English, proper nouns begin with capital letters. Concrete noun A concrete noun is a noun which refers to people and to things that exist physically and can be seen, touched, smelled, heard, or tasted. Examples include dog, building, coffee, tree, rain, beach, tune. Abstract noun An abstract noun is a noun which refers to ideas, qualities, and conditions - things that cannot be seen or touched and things which have no physical reality, e.g. truth, danger, happiness, time, friendship, humour. Collective nouns Collective nouns refer to groups of people or things, e.g. audience, family, government, team, jury. In American English, most collective nouns are treated as singular, with a singular verb: The whole family was at the table. In British English, the preceding sentence would be correct, but it would also be correct to treat the collective noun as a plural, with a plural verb: The whole family were at the table. For more information about this, see matching verbs to collective nouns. A noun may belong to more than one category. For example, happiness is both a common noun and an abstract noun, while Mount Everest is both a concrete noun and a proper noun. Count and mass nouns Nouns can be either countable or uncountable. Countable nouns (or count nouns) are those that refer to something that can be counted. Uncountable nouns (or mass nouns) do not typically refer to things that can be counted and so they do not regularly have a plural form. Билет. Varieties of English Pronunciation. The Orthoepic Norm. There exist numerous varietiesof pronunciation in any language, the English language as well. The pronunciation of almost of every locality in the British Isles has peculiar features that distinguish it from the pronunciation of other localities. Besides, pr-n is socially influenced. ... But the pronouncing dictionaries do not and cannot reflect all these variants. PronunciationVarieties of British English. It is generally considered that the orthoepic norm of British English is “Received Pronunciation” (RP), though as many scholars state, it is not the only variety of British English pr-n that is recognized as the orthoepic norm in present-day Britain. RP was accepted as the phonetic norm of English about a century ago. The varieties that are spoken by a socially limited number of people and used only in certain localities are called dialects. There are local and social dialects. Dialects have some peculiarities in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammatical structure. Every dialectal pronunciation is characterized by features that are common to all the other dialects of the language, and by a number of specific peculiarities of its own, that set it apart from all the other dialects. The orthoepic norm of a language is the standard pronunciation adopted by the native speakers as the right and proper way of speaking.The orthoepic norm of a language comprises the variants of pronunciation of vocabulary units and prosodic patterns which reflect the main tendencies in pronunciation existing in a language.The orthoepic norm is based on the variants ofpronunciation that are widely used in actual speech, reflects the main phonetic tendencies, and is considered to be acceptable by the educated. The orthoepic norm involves prosodic phenomenon as well (e.g. generally agreed norm of loudness, recognized norm of tempo).The orthoepic norm is not isolated from non-standard pronunciations that are in current use. In British English phoneticians generally distinguish three main regional types of pronunciation: Southern, Northern and Scottish regional types of English pronunciation. It is generally considered that the orthoepic norm of British English is "Received Pronunciation" (RP). Received Pronunciation is mainly based on the Southern English regional type of pronunciation, but it has developed its own features which have given it a non—regional character. RP is spoken all over Britain by a comparatively small number of Englishmen who have had the most privileged education in the country. American English (AE), which is a variant of the English language, has developed its own peculiarities in vocabulary, grammatical structure and pronunciation. The most widely used regional types of AE pronunciation are the Eastern, the Southern, and the General American types (GA). The peculiarities of GA lie in: 1. the pronunciation of sounds and sound combinations 2. the stress patterns of words 3. intonation Билет. 2) A word, as a meaningful language unit, has a definite phonetic structure. The phonetic structure of a word comprises not only the sounds that the word is composed of and not only the syllabus structure that these sounds form, it also has a definite stress pattern. The stress patterns of different words may coincide. Thus the word “mother”, “table”, “happy”, “after” have an identical stress pattern though their sound structures have nothing in common. 3) Speaking exists in two forms: dialogue and monologue. We can represent it as follows: Oral:1)hearing 2)speaking a) monologue b)dialogue The syllabus requirement for oral language are as follows: 1) To understand the language spoken 2) To carry on a conversation and to speak a foreign language within the topics and linguistic material the syllabus set. Speaking is the most difficult part in the language learning because pupils need practice is speaking to be able to say a few words of their own to connection with a situation. 12 билет 1)When we know the rules of word formation we can increase our receptive voc-ry; 2)We can increase our productive vocabulary; 3)By knowing about endings (suffexes) & beginning (prefixes) we can learn voc-ry more quicly; 4)When we want to refer both prefixes&suffixes together, we use word ‘affixes’: (Un/under)develop(ment/er/able) 2. THE WAY OF T.Rd - the teacher can use the whole system of exercise for developing pupils ability to read which may be done in two forms – loud and silent. READING LOUD – in teaching reading loud the following methods are observed the phonic the word and sentence methods. SILENT READING- in learning to read peoples widen their eyes. They can see more than a word a phrase a sentence. The eye make faster than the reader is able to pronounce what he see. 13 билет. Syllabic structures of English words A syllable may consist of one phoneme or a number of phonemes. Four types of syllables are distinguished in English according to the number and the arrangement of sounds: 1) open – no, he, be; 2) closed – odd, it, is;3) covered – coat, mark, sat;4) uncovered – are, or, err - is called phonotactics. 3) The term ‘translation’ is defined as a process of replacing a text in one language by a text in another. This is a very common definition of translation, which highlights its linguistic function. There are following types of translation: (a) translation from the f.I. into the mother tongue;(b) translation from the mother tongue into the f.l. &(c) retranslation. We distinguish:1.Word for word tr., when all lexical units of g.l. replaced by those of the mother tongue.2.Adequate tr. which in contrast with word for word transl. transmits the through expressed in f.l. by means of the corresponding equivalents of the mother tongue.3.Free trans.of the text in the mother tongue that was read/heard in the f.l.4.Literary-artistic tr. is transl. which require speech skills & knowledge, & it cannot be in school requirements. 14 билет. From stylistic point of view, it is important to classify the English vocabulary, as many stylistic devices are based on the interplay of different stylistic aspects of words. According to Galperin, the vocabulary of the English language can be divided into three main layers: 1. the literary layer 2. the neutral layer 3. the colloquial layer The literary and neutral layers contain a number of sub-groups each of which has a property it shares with all the sub-groups within the layer – this common property is called aspect. The aspect of literary layer is its markedly bookish character. This layer is more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer is its lively spoken character – it makes this layer unstable and fleeting. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character - it is unrestricted in its use, - it can be employed in all styles of language, - it can be employed in all spheres of human activity, - it is the most stable layer. NEUTRAL, COMMON LITERARY AND COMMON COLLOQUIAL VOCABULARY - are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary. a) Neutral Words are used in both literary and colloquial language. They are the main source of synonymy and polysemy (prolific in the production of new meanings). The wealth of the neutral words is often overlooked due to their inconspicuous character but their faculty for generating new stylistic variants is amazing. Unlike all other groups, the neutral words cannot be considered as having a special stylistic colouring, (whereas both literary and colloquial words have a definite stylistic colouring). b) Common Literary Words are mainly used in writing and in polished speech. It is not difficult to distinguish between a literary word and a colloquial word as the literary units, they stand in oposition to colloquial units. WRITING AS A SKILL Writing as a skill is very important in teaching and learning a foreign language; it helps pupils to assimilate letters and sounds of the English language, its vocabulary and grammar, and to develop habits and skills in pronunciation, speaking, and reading. Since writing is a complicated skill it should be developed through the formation of such as: the habit of writing letters of the English alphabet (2) the habit of converting speech sounds into their symbols letters and letter combinations (3) the habit of correct spelling of words, phrases, and sentences; 4) the habit of writing various exercises which lead pu. to expressing their thoughts in connection with the task set In forming writing habits the following factors are oi great importance: 1. Auditory perception of a sound, a word, a phrase, or a sentence, i, e., proper hearing a sound, a word, a phrase, or sentence. 2. Articulation of a sound and pronunciation of a word a phrase, and a sentence by the pupil who writes 3. Visual of or letter combinations which stand for sounds. Pupils should know that the small letters are all made with an unbroken movement of the pen The most difficult thing ior Russian pupils in learning to write is English spelling. The spelling system of a language may be based upon the following principles: Historical or conservative principle when spelling the pronunciation of earlier periods in the history of the language. For example, Russian: Кого, жил: English: busy, brought daughter. 2. Morphological principle. In writing a word the morphemic composition of the word is taken into For example, in Russian: рыба, рыбка; root morpheme is рыб; in English: answered, asked; the affixal morpheme is ed. 3. Phonetic principle, Spelling reflects the pronunciation. For example, in Russian: бесконечный-безграничный. In English: leg, pot Билет . The UK is one of the smallest countries in the world. In size it is twice smaller than Spain or France. Its total area is about 245,000 square kilometers, but the population of the UK is over 60 million people. Four countries that make up the UK are England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England is situated in the central and southern part of Great Britain. Historically it's the most important part of the country. It's also the biggest and the most populated part of the UK. Scotland is the northern part of Great Britain and it is much smaller than England. Scotland is very close to the Arctic circle. Because of its geographical position Scotland is less populated than England. Wales is situated in the western part of the island. Northern Ireland is the smallest part of the UK. It has only one-sixth of the territory of Ireland island. The UK has a parliamentary government based on the Westminster system that has been emulated around the world: a legacy of the British Empire. The parliament of the United Kingdom meets in the Palace of Westminster and has two houses: an elected House of Commons and an appointed House of Lords. Creative exercises (speech exercises). This is the most difficult type of exercises as it requires creative work on the part of the learners. These may be: a) Making statements either on the picture the teacher shows, or on objects. For example, the teacher hangs up a picture and asks his pupils to say or write three or five statements in the Present Continuous. b) Asking questions with a given grammar item. For example, pupils are invited to ask and answer questions in the Past Indefinite. c) Speaking about the situation offered by the teacher. For example, one pupil gives commands to perform this or that action, the other comments on the action (actions) his classmate performs. d) Speaking on a suggested topic. For example, a pupil tells the class what he did yesterday. e) Making dialogues using the grammar item covered.f) Dramatizing the text read.g) Commenting on a film-strip, a film.h) Telling the story (read, heard).i) Translating into English 17 билет. The literary vocabulary English language as the domain divided into two major layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The literary and the colloquial layer contain a number of subgroups, all of which have a certain property, characteristic of the layer on the whole, that is called an aspect. Thus we say ‘the aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character, the aspect of the colloquial layer is its lively spoken character. Both peculiarities make the first layer more or less stable and the latter – unstable, fleeting. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character which means that it is unrestricted in use. The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words: 1. Terms 2. Poetical words 3. Archaic words 4. Foreignisms and barbarisms Terms Learned words in English include not only scientific terms, but also special terms in any branch of science, technique or art. A term – is a word (word-combination) denoting a scientific concept. Poetic words Poetic words are words and phrases calculated to imbue ordinary concepts with a poetic nuance. Their use is confined mainly to poetic style and by their very nature they are monosemantic. Poetic words are rather insignificant in number. These are mostly archaic words that very rarely used to produce an elevated effect of speech, their main function being sustaining poetic atmosphere. Poetic tradition has kept alive such ancient words and forms as yclept (past participle of the old verb clipian- to call), quoth (past tense of cweqan – to speak); eftsoons - soon after, again. Archaic words – are those that have either entirely gone out of use or some of whose meaning have grown archaic. Archaic and poetic words are studied mostly by historical linguistics. Written works provide the best data for establishing the changes that happen to a language over time. For example, the following passage from Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, written in the English of the fourteenth century, has recognizable elements but is different enough from modern English to require a translation. Barbarisms and foreignisms Barbarisms -are words of foreign origin which have not entirely become assimilated into the English language. They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are on the outskirts of the literary language. Most of barbarisms have corresponding English synonyms: chic – stylish, bon mot – clever witty saying, ad finitum – to infinity; beau monde – high society. 2. Formative and Summative Assessment can be placed into formative and summative categories for the purpose of considering different objectives for assessment practices. Formative assessment is generally carried out throughout a course or unit. Also referred to as “educative assessment,” it is used to aid learning. In an educational setting, formative assessment might be a teacher (or peer) or the learner providing feedback on a student’s work, and would not necessarily be used for grading purposes. Formative assessments are diagnostic. Summative assessment is generally carried out at the end of a term. In an educational setting, summative assessments are typically used to assign students a course grade. These types of assessments are generally evaluative. Summative and formative assessment are often referred to in a learning context as “assessment of learning” and “assessment for learning,” respectively. Assessment of learning is generally summative in nature and intended to measure learning outcomes, and report those outcomes to students, parents, and administrators. Assessment of learning generally occurs at the conclusion of a class, course, semester, or academic year. Assessment for learning is generally formative in nature, and is used by teachers to consider approaches to teaching and next steps for individual learners and the class. 16 билет. Chronological division of the history of the language. The history of E. covers the period of over 16 centuries. The most widely spread point of view was excepted by Henry Sweet was the author of a number of works on the E. lang. He proposed the division of history of E. according to the state of unstressed endings: 1 period: Old English-the period of full endings (any vowel could be met in an unstressed ending): sunu, mona. 4 principle dialects were spoken in Anglo-Saxon England: 1) Kentish(the speech of Jutes), West Saxon(South of the river Thames), Mercian(from Thames to the Hamber, exclusive of Wales), Northumbrian 2 period: Middle English(1100-1500)-the period of leveled endings(vowels in unstressed endings have been leveled to the neutral (э)»letter ‘e’: mone, sune). 3 period: Modern English-the period of lost endings: moon, sun. 3.Communicative techniques and activities for foreign language teaching. Communicative language teaching is a popular approach to language teaching which emphasize using language in the same way that its used in real life. In order words, you put your students in long situations which are as close to real life as possible. Role of the teacher: the teacher facilities the communication in the classroom, and he also acts like an adviser and a guide. Role of the student: students are communications. They are actively engage in trying to make themselves understood and in understanding others. Advantages of that method: 1) Students will be more motivated by learning to communicate. 2) Student will learn to communicate effectively. Disadvantages: no grammar rules are presented. Communicative language teaching shares a number of teaching practice with other approaches: * Role play * Interviews and information exchange * Pair and group work * Learning by teaching various special skills and knowledge and it cannot be included in school syllabus requirements. * TYPES OF CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES The range of exercise types and activities compatible with a approach is Communicative unlimited, provided that such exercises enable learners to attain the communicative objectives of the curriculum. * CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Information-Gap Activities Jigsaw activities Pair and Group Work * Emphasis on Pair and Group Work They can learn from hearing the language used by other members of the group They will produce a greater amount of language than they would use in teacher- fronted activities. Their motivational level is likely to increase. They will have the chance to develop fluency Teaching and classroom materials today consequently make use of a wide variety of small-group activities. * Other Activity Types in CLT Task-completion activities Information-gathering activities Opinion-sharing activities Information-transfer activities Reasoning-gap activities Role plays 18 билет. 2) Polysyndeton is a repetition of conjunction in close succession, for example, when connecting homogeneous parts, or clauses, or sentences. The function of polysyndeton is to impart the idea of equal logical importance of connected elements, e.g.:The looms, and wheels, and hands, all out of gear for an hou--Charles Dickens Asyndeton is a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions. Asyndeton helps to create the effect of terse, energetic, active prose repetition is recurrence of the same word, word combination, phrase for two and more times. Repetition is classified into several types, according to the place the repeated element occupies in a sentence: anaphora: the beginning of some successive sentences (clauses) is repeated, e.g.: repetition (anadiplosis): the end of one sentence (clause) is repeated in the beginning of the following one, e.g.: But the smell of burned dust was in the air, and the air was dry. (J.S.)chain repetition presents several successive anadiplosis, e.g.ordinary repetition has no definite place in the sentence. It emphasizes both the logical and the emotional meanings of the repeated word (phrase), e.g.:successive repetition is a string of closely following each other reiterated units, e.g.: This is the most emphatic type of repetition which expresses the peak of emotions of the speaker. Role Modeling,,,Teachers typically do not think of themselves as role models, however, inadvertently they are. Students spend a great deal of time with their teacher and therefore, the teacher becomes a role model to them. This can be a positive or negative effect depending on the teacher. Teachers are there not only to teach the children, but also to love and care for them. Teachers are typically highly respected by people in the community and therefore become a role model to students and parents. Mentoring,,,,Mentoring is a natural role taken on by teachers, whether it is intentional or not. This again can have positive or negative effects on children. Mentoring is a way a teacher encourages students to strive to be the best they can. This also includes encouraging students to enjoy learning. Part of mentoring consists of listening to students. Another role played by teachers is a protector role. Teachers are taught to look for signs of trouble in the students. When students’ behaviors change or physical signs of abuse are noticed, teachers are required to look into the problem. Teachers must follow faculty procedures when it comes to following up on all signs of trouble. Билет Hyperbole- a SD in which emphasis is achived through deliberate exaggeration,- like epithet relies on the foregrounding of the emotive meaning. The fellings and emotions of the speaker are so ruffled that he recorts in his speech to intensifying the quantitative or the qualitative aspect of the mentioned object. In “I would gladly see the film a hundred times”,-we use trite language hyperboles which, through long and repeated use, have lost their originally and remained signals of the speakers roused emotions. H. may be the final effects of another SD-m-r, simile, irony, as in “The man was like the Rock of Gibraltar” .H is aimed at exaggerating quantity or quality when it is directed the opposite way, when the size, shape, characteristics features of the object are not overrated but intentionally underrated we deal with understatement. F/ex: “The woman was of a pocket size”. Oxymoron – is the combination of 2 words (adjective+ noun or adjective + adjective) in which the meanings of the two clash being opposite in sense. “Poorest millionaire”, “The peopled desert”, “populous solitude”, “Proud humility” etc. A euphemism /ˈjuːfəˌmɪzəm/ is a generally innocuous word or expression used in place of one that may be found offensive or suggest something unpleasant. Some euphemisms are intended to amuse, while others use bland, inoffensive terms for things the user wishes to downplay. Euphemisms are used to refer to taboo topics (such as disability, sex, excretion, or death) in a polite way, or to mask profanity. 2) There are many methods of language teaching and a considerable amount of controversy as to the best way of foreign languages teaching abroad at present. However it is possible to group them into: 1) traditional methods which have their origin in the grammar – translation method, and 2) audio-lingual method which are considered to be a further development of the direct method line. The traditional approach to foreign language teaching is characterized by: 1) the use of the native language for explanation retention and checking of grammar; 2) the deductive explanation of grammar exercises; 3) the development of all the language skills, i.e hearing, speaking, reading, writing from the beginning of the course. This approach is called traditional because it has been prevalent in schools for a long time. This methods are often contrasted with audio-lingual methods, and the latter are considered to be contemporary ones, we’ll dwell upon the audio-lingual methods more thoroughly. receptive stage: the student listens to the conversation 2-3 times and tries to grasp it; reproductive stage: the student reproduces the phrases and sentences said by the speaker. In conclusion, it should be said that between the grammar- translation method however modified and the direct method in various modifications there have been mixed or in- between methods. The advocates of the latter methods try to avoid the extremes of the former. “Language Learning” by Peter Hagboldt is an example of such a method Билет . Climax (gradation) is a syntactic figure of speech in which each next word combination (clause, sentence) is logically more important or emotionally stronger and more explicit. The negative form of the structures participating in the formation of climax reverses the order in which climax-components are used, e.g.: Not time, not happiness, not fun, not children, not a house, not bathroom, not a clean pair of pajamas, not the morning paper, not to wake up together, not to wake and know she’s there and that you’re not alone. --Ernest Hemingway Climax can be logical, emotive or quantitative. The most frequent model of climax is a three-step construction, in which intensification of logical importance, of emotion or quantity (size, dimensions) is gradually rising from step to step, e.g.: “I haven’t a blue dress,” she replied stiffly. Personification is a figure of speech where human qualities are given to objects or ideas. In the arts, personification means representing a non-human thing as if it were human. Personification gives human traits and qualities, such as emotions, desires, sensations, gestures and speech, often by way of a metaphor. A few more examples of personification in sentences: 1. The stars danced playfully in the moonlit sky. 2. Opportunity was knocking at her door. 3. At precisely 6:30 am my alarm clock sprang in to life Alliteration is a figure of speech and a stylistic literary device which is identified by the repeated sound of the first or second letter in a series of words, or the repetition of the same letter sounds in stressed syllables of a phrase. Билет . Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc.), by things (machines, tools), by people (sighing, laughter, etc.) and by animals (mew, bark, etc.).There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: 1) direct and 2) indirect. Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds (ding-dong, bang, cuckoo, ping-pong, etc.)Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called «echo-writing». Epithet is not so direct as interjection; it actually conveys the subjective meaning attitude of the writer. E. is based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in the attributive word. Epithets can be divided into: a) language epithets (dark forest, dreary night) because they point the feature which is essential to the object described; b) speech epithets. (They characterize the object by adding a feature not inherent in it (sleepless bay).Structurally epithets can be divided into: 1) simple; 2) compound; 3) phrase epithets Simple are ordinary, logic attributes (green meadow). Compound – ex. mischief-making monkey. Phrase epithets are placed before the noun they refer to. Sometimes they contain the whole sentence. Speech and Oral exercises We must distinguish speech and oral exercises for they are often mixed up by the teacher. Speech is a process of communication by means of language. For example, (1) a pupil tells the class a story about something which once happened to him; (2) the teacher asks questions on the story read by the pupils at home and starts a discussionю Oral exercises are used for the pupils to assimilate phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary. They are mostly drill exercises and the teacher turns to them whenever he works at enriching pupils’ knowledge in vocabulary and grammar, at improving pupils’ pronunciation, etc. Making up sentences following the model is an excellent oral exercise for fixing a sentence pattern and words which fit the pattern in the pupils’ mind. Psychological characteristics of speech 1. Speech must be motivated, i. e., the speaker expresses a desire to inform the hearer of something interesting, important, or to get information from him. They should have a necessity to speak and not only a desire to receive a good mark. 2. Speech is always addressed to an inter locuter..3. Speech is always emotionally coloured for a speaker expresses his thoughts, his feelings, his attitude to what he says. 4. Speech is always situational for it takes place in a certain situation. № 26 билет Old English phonetics Accentuation system dynamic stress fixed on the first root syllable: agāne (gone); ʒesēon (see); ʒaderian (gather)Polysyllabic words and compounds - two stresses: Polysyllabic words and compounds - two stresses: chief (on the first component) secondary. Grammatical endings were unstressed: hlaforde – hlaford (lord); cyninʒe - cyninʒ (king); æþelinʒʒa – æþelinʒ (nobleman)Verb prefixes were unaccented: Verb prefixes were unaccented: a-'risan (arise), mis-'faran (go astray). In adjectives and nouns the stress shifted onto the prefix: 'or-eald (very old), 'to-weard (towards), 'mis-dæd (misdeed).In words derived from the same root, word stress distinguished nouns from verbs: In words derived from the same root, word stress distinguished nouns from verbs: 'and-swaru (noun) – and-'swarian (verb) – answer; ‘onʒin (noun) - on'ʒinnan (verb) – beginning, begin.OE system of consonants 14 consonants: p, b, m, f, t, d, n, s, r, I, þ (ð), c, ʒ, h some of the modern sounds were non-existent: [ʃ], [ʒ], [ʧ], [ʤ]All the consonants fell into All the consonants fell into sonorants (m, w, n, r, l, ŋ, j) and noise consonants. Noise consonants were subdivided into voiced plosives (b, d, g) voiceless plosives (p, t, k) voiced fricatives (v, ð, z, γ ) voiceless fricatives (f, θ, h, x ). Sometimes voicing was the only point of difference between allophones - variants of a phoneme depending on the phonetic surrounding and serving to distinguish between words.Palatalised sounds (k’, g’, x’, γ ‘ ) -- not typical of MnE. Palatalised sounds (k’, g’, x’, γ ‘ ) -- not typical of MnE. Short and long consonants: /f, s, n/ /p, g / were doubled in spelling to indicate length - part-time, big game. 3) Teaching grammatical items of a foreign Language The Importance of Grammar in Learning a Foreign Language In order to understand a language and to express oneself correctly one must assimilate the grammar mechanism of the language studied.A command of English as is envisaged by the school syllabus cannot be ensured without the study of grammar. Pupils need grammar to be able to aud, speak, read, and write in the target language.The word order in Tom gave Helen a rose indicates what was given (a rose), to whom (Helen), and by whom (Tom). How to Teach Grammar Teaching grammar should be based upon the following principles:1. Conscious approach to the teaching of grammar. This means that pupils must concentrate their attention on some elements of the pattern to be able to use them as orienting points when speaking or writing the target language. 2 Practical approach to the assimilation of grammar. It means that pupils learn those grammar items which they need for immediate use either in oral or written lan- guage. Rule for the teacher: Teach pupils correct grammar usage and not grammar knowledge.3. Structural approach to the teaching of grammar, i. e., grammar items are introduced and drilled in structures or sentence patterns.Pupils are taught to understand English when spoken to and to speak it from the very beginning. 4. Situational approach to the teaching of grammar. Pupils learn a grammar item used in situations. Rule for the teacher: Select the situations for the particular grammar item you are going to present. 5. Different approach to the teaching of active grammar (grammar for conversation) and passive grammar. Grammar items pupils need for conversation are taught by the oral approach, i.e.,pupils aud them, perform various oral exercises, finally see them printed, and write sentences using them.Grammar items necessary for reading are taught through reading..Recognition exercises which are the easiest type of exercises for pupils to perform. Drill exercises are more complicated. In learning a foreign language drill exercises are indispensable. Creative exercises (speech exercises). This is the most difficult type of exercises as it requires creative work on the part of the learners.Grammar tests. A check on the assimilate of grammar material is carried out through:1) auding 2) speaking 3) reading 4) tests. № 27 билет 2) General information about the USA The United States of America (USA), often called the United States (U.S.) or America, is the fourth largest country in the world by area and third most populous country. It is made up of 50 states, a federal district, and five territories. It has great influence over world finance, trade, culture, military, politics, and technology.The United States is a federal republic. The federal government of the United States is set up bythe Constitution. There are three branches. They are the executive branch, the legislative branch, and the judicial branch. State governments and the federal government work in very similar ways. Each state has its own executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The executive branch of a state government is led by a governor, instead of a president.The United States does not have an official language, the United States Congress has considered officially designating English as such for many years,[24] since it is the most used language, and the language in which the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution are written. 38 states out of 50 have English as the official language.American popular culture goes out to many places in the world. It has a large influence on most of the world, especially the Western world. American music is heard all over the world, and American movies and television shows can be seen in most countries.The American flag is made up of 50 stars on a blue background, and has 13 stripes, seven red and six white. It is one of many symbols of the United States like the Bald Eagle. The 50 stars represent the 50 states. The red stands for courage. The blue stands for justice. The white represents peace and cleanness. The 13 stripes represent the 13 original colonies 3) The role, place and types of translation used in foreign language From the history of methods of foreign language teaching it is known that the approach to translation has undergone various changes at different times. Thus in the second half of the 18th, and the first half of the 19th century, translation was considered to be a method of instruction. If we consider translation from the point of view of its relation to the original, we distinguish: 1.Word for word translation (or literally translation), when all the lexical units of the foreign language are replaced by those of the mother tongue, the grammar structure being that of the foreign language. For example, I have a sister- Я имею сестру. My mother is not at home – Моя мама (есть) не дома. He was called on by the teacher yesterday – Он был спрошен учителем вчера. 2. Adequate translation which in contrast with word for word translation transmits the thought expressed in the foreign language by means of the correspond- ing equivalents of the mother tongue. For example: I have a sister – У меня есть сестра. My mother is not at homе – Мамы нет дома. He was called on by the teacher yesterdaу – Его вчера спрашивал учитель. 3. Free translation or free interpretation of the text in the mother tongue that was read or heard in the foreign language. For example, pupils read a newspaper article and each says a few words, on its contents. 4. Literary-artistic translation is a translation which requires special skills and knowledge and it cannot be included in school syllabus requirements Translation may be of two kinds: written and oral. They both may be used with the aim of checking pupils’ comprehension, and their knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. № 28 билет 2) Daniel Defoe (1660-1731). His life and works 3) Teaching aids and Teaching materials 2) Daniel Defoe (1660-1731). His life and works English novelist, pamphleteer and journalist Daniel Defoe is best known for his novels Robinson Crusoe and Moll Flanders. Daniel Defoe was born in 1660 in London, England. He became a merchant and participated in several failing businesses, facing bankruptcy and aggressive creditors. He was also a prolific political pamphleteer which landed him in prison for slander. Late in life he turned his pen to fiction and wrote Robinson Crusoe, one of the most widely read and influential novels of all time. Defoe died in 1731.Acclaimed Writer Having always been interested in politics, Defoe published his first literary piece, a political pamphlet, in 1683. Many of Defoe's works during this period targeted support for King William III, also known as "William Henry of Orange." Some of his most popular works include The True-Born Englishman, a periodical that was published from 1704 to 1713, during the reign of Queen Anne, King William II's successor Defoe took a new literary path in 1719, around the age of 59, when he published Robinson Crusoe A handful of novels followed soon after—often with rogues and criminals as lead characters—including Moll Flanders, Colonel Jack, Captain Singleton, Journal of the Plague Year and his last major fiction piece, Roxana (1724). 3) Teaching aids and Teaching materials To master a foreign language, pupils must be engaged in activities which are characteristic of the language; they should hear the language spoken, speak, read, and write it. To teach a foreign language effectively the teacher needs teaching aids and teaching materials..Teaching Aids By teaching aids we mean various devices which can help the foreign language teacher in presenting linguistic material to his pupils and fixing it in their memory; in testing pupils’ knowledge of words, phrases, and grammar items, their habits and skills in using them.Teaching aids which are at teachers’ disposal in contemporary schools may be grouped into (1) non-mechanical aids and (2) mechanical aids. Non-mechanical aids are: a blackboard, the oldest aid in the classrooma flanneloard it is used for creating vivid situations which would stimulate pupils’ oral language; the teacher can have a flannelboard made in a workshop or buy one in a specialized shop; magnet board used with the same purpose as a flannelboard;a lantern (диаподитив) which is used for throwing pictures onto a screen.Mechanical aids are: a gramophone;an opaque projector or epidiascope used for projection of illustrations and photographs;a filmstrip projector the teaching machine can provide an interaction between the pupil and the “programme”; favorable conditions are created for individual pupils to learn, for instance, vocabulary, grammar, reading, etc.;a language laboratory, this is a special classroom designed for language learning. Teaching Materials By teaching materials we mean the materials which the teacher can use to help pupils learn a foreign language through visual or audio perception. The following teaching materials are in use nowadays: teacher’s books, pupil’s books, visual materials, audio materials, and audio-visual materials. Билет . /Middle English Grammar/ Before the Norman Conquest, people were taught to write a form of Old English that was more archaic than the form they actually spoke. We’re in the same position today. We’re taught to write ‘write’, even though we no longer pronounce the w and the e, and our pronunciation of the i is no longer the original pronunciation, which was more like the i in ‘machine’. Vowels. The letters a, e, i, o, and u are generally pronounced as in Spanish. If you use the phrase Jose’s tacos and burritos, you have the pronunciation for all these letters. Sometimes e, i, o, and u are pronounced in as in English bet, bit, for, and put, especially when followed by two consonants. The rules for which pronunciation you should use are actually pretty complicated. Try both pronunciations and go with what feels right to you. You’ll be right the majority of the time. Ou/ow are pronounced as in Modern English boot. Ai/ay/ei/ey are pronounced like the vowel in find. Double vowels like aa are pronounced just like single vowels. Consonants f is pronounced like in Modern English. However, in southern England this sound was pronounced v and is often spelt v or u (voxe/uoxe = ‘fox’). Grammar Nouns The plurals of nouns generally end in –s or –es. However, some nouns end in –n or –en (like Modern English ox, oxen), especially in earlier texts. Possessive forms end in –s or –es. There is no apostrophe; possessives are distinguished from plurals by context. Verbs The infinitive form (e.g. ‘to go’, ‘to sleep’, ‘to sing’) ends in –n or –en: e.g. goon, slepen, singen. In later texts, the –n may disappear. The –n or –en ending can also indicate a plural form of the verb: e.g. they goon, they slepen, they singen. In the past tense, the ending may be –n, -en, or –ed. Planning in foreign language teaching. The teacher should write his daily plans if he strives for effective and reasonable use of time allotted to his pupils' learning a foreign language. However some teachers, including novice teachers, do not prepare written plans. They claim that they can teach "off the top of their heads", and they really can, but their teaching usually results in poor pupils‘ language skills because in this case we have "teacher dominated" classes when the teacher works hard during the lesson while his pupils remain mere "observers" of the procedure. Indeed, when the teacher is standing in front of pupils he does not have much time to think how to organize his pupils' activity. This should be done before the lesson for the teacher to be able to stimulate and direct pupils' learning the language. 30 билет. Owning to the collapse of the West Saxon traditions of witing following the Norman Conquest: 1) English comes to be written as it is pronounced, with simplified inflection 2) A rich variety of dialects appears in the manuscripts 3) Norse influence appears in the Midland and Northern dialects Some examples of Middle English dialectal variation North London/Midland south stone stan stoon stoon what quhat what what speaking spekand spekende spekinde
Methods and Its Relations to Other Sciences Language education Methods of foreign language teaching is covers three main problems:• aims of teaching a foreign language; • content of teaching, i.e. what to teach to attain the aims;• methods and techniques of teaching, i.e. how to teach a foreign language to attain the aims in the most effective way. Methods of foreign language teaching is closely related to other sciences such as pedagogics, psychology, physiology, linguistics, and some others. Pedagogics is the science concerned with the teaching and education of the younger generation. Since Methods also deals with the problems of teaching and education, it is most closely related to pedagogics. To study foreign language teaching one must know pedagogics. One branch of pedagogics is called didactics. Didactics studies general ways of teaching in schools and studies the specific ways of teaching a definite subject. Methods of foreign language teaching has a definite relation to physiology of the higher nervous system Methods of foreign language teaching is most closely related to linguistics, since linguistics deals with the problems with language and thinking, grammar and vocabulary, the relationship between grammar and vocabulary, and many others. 2 билет. Lewis Carroll was the pen name of Charles L. Dodgson, author of the children's classics "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" and "Through the Looking-Glass." Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, best known by his pseudonym, Lewis Carroll, was born in the village of Daresbury, England, on January 27, 1832. The eldest boy in a family of 11 children, Carroll was rather adept at entertaining himself and his siblings. His father, a clergyman, raised them in the rectory. As a boy, Carroll excelled in mathematics and won many academic prizes. At age 20, he was awarded a studentship (called a scholarship in other colleges) to Christ College. Apart from serving as a lecturer in mathematics, he was an avid photographer and wrote essays, political pamphlets and poetry. "The Hunting of the Snark" displays his wonderful ability in the genre of literary nonsense. Alice and Literary Success Carroll suffered from a bad stammer, but he found himself vocally fluent when speaking with children. The relationships he had with young people in his adult years are of great interest, as they undoubtedly inspired his best-known writings and have been a point of disturbed speculation over the years. Carroll loved to entertain children, and it was Alice, the daughter of Henry George Liddell, who can be credited with his pinnacle inspiration. Alice Liddell remembers spending many hours with Carroll, sitting on his couch while he told fantastic tales of dream worlds. During an afternoon picnic with Alice and her two sisters, Carroll told the first iteration of what would later become Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. When Alice arrived home, she exclaimed that he must write the story down for her. He fulfilled the small girl's request, and through a series of coincidences, the story fell into the hands of the novelist Henry Kingsley, who urged Carroll to publish it. The book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland was released in 1865. It gained steady popularity, and as a result, Carroll wrote the sequel, Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There (1871). By the time of his death, Alice had become the most popular children's book in England, and by 1932 it was one of the most popular in the world. Photography and Legacy Besides writing, Carroll created a number of fine photographs. His notable portraits include those of the actress Ellen Terry and the poet Alfred Tennyson. He also photographed children in every possible costume and situation, eventually making nude studies of them. Despite conjecture, little real evidence of child abuse can be brought against him. Shortly before his 66th birthday, Lewis Carroll caught a severe case of influenza, which led to pneumonia. He died on January 14, 1898, leaving an enigma behind him. 3./ Contemporary method/ All the points mentioned above are undergoing further development in contemporary Methods abroad. There are many methods of language teaching and a considerable amount of controversy as to the best way of foreign languages teaching abroad at present. However it is possible to group them into: 1) traditional methods which have their origin in the grammar – translation method, and 2) audio-lingual method which are considered to be a further development of the direct method line. The traditional approach to foreign language teaching is characterized by: 1) the use of the native language for explanation retention and checking of grammar; 2) the deductive explanation of grammar exercises; 3) the development of all the language skills, i.e hearing, speaking, reading, writing from the beginning of the course. This approach is called traditional because it has been prevalent in schools for a long time. This methods are often contrasted with audio-lingual methods, and the latter are considered to be contemporary ones, we’ll dwell upon the audio-lingual methods more thoroughly. The main features of the contemporary methods are: The development of audio-lingual skill first i.e listening comprehension and speaking, that is why that methods are called audio-lingual. Great care in teaching speaking so that the learner could use the spoken forms as accurately as possible, that is with native like sentence patterns and pronunciation. 3. The rejection of translation as the main tool of instruction. All the exercises performed by the student are usually within the target lg. 4. Teaching grammar through pattern practice. The grammatical exercises usually take the form of drills in which the student is asked to substitute words for other words. 5. Extensive use of “real- life” communication situations for stimulating the student’s language activity. This is done to involve the student in the act of communication in the target language, and in this way to arouse his interest in language learning and increase his motivation. 6. The development of reading and writing first using the linguistic material and the student has learned orally, and then the material characteristic of written language with the aim of getting information (reading) and sending information (writing). receptive stage: the student listens to the conversation 2-3 times and tries to grasp it; reproductive stage: the student reproduces the phrases and sentences said by the speaker In conclusion, it should be said that between the grammar- translation method however modified and the direct method in various modifications there have been mixed or in- between methods. The advocates of the latter methods try to avoid the extremes of the former. “Language Learning” by Peter Hagboldt is an example of such a method. In conclusion, we may say that much effort is being expended on the development of more effective methods of foreign language teaching and, although practical results are not yet encouraging, as one can judge from different publications on Methods, one can hope that a scientific approach to foreign language teaching will being considerable improvement. 3 билет A verb is a part of speech that denotes the action or state of a person or thing. The main function of the verb in the sentence is the function of the predicate: Не studies at the Institute. - Он учится в институте Yesterday I slept six hours. - Вчера я спал шесть часов. The verb is a part of speech, which denotes a process or state. All verbs have The non-finite forms are four in number, they are: the infinitive, the gerund, participle I and participle II. The mixed features of these forms are revealed in the principal spheres of the part-of-speech characterisation, i.e. in their meaning, structural marking, combinability, and syntactic functions. Non-finites possess the verb categories of voice, perfect, and aspect. They lack the categories of person, number, mood, and tense. None of the forms have morphological features of non-verbal parts of speech, neither nominal, adjectival or adverbial. In the sphere of syntax, however, non-finites possess both verbal and non-verbal features. Their non-verbal character reveals itself in their syntactical functions. Syntactically the verbal character of non-finites is manifested mainly in their combinability. Similarly to finite forms they may combine with nouns functioning as direct, indirect, or prepositional objects, with adverbs and prepositional phrases used as adverbial modifiers, and with subordinate clauses. In many languages (including English), there can be just one finite verb at the root of each clause (unless the finite verbs are coordinated), whereas the number of non-finite verbs can reach up to five or six, or even more, e.g. Most types of verbs can appear in finite or non-finite form (and sometimes these forms may be identical): for example, the English verb go has the finite forms go, goes, and went, and the non-finite forms go, going and gone. The English modal verbs (can, could, will, etc.) are defective and lack non-finite forms. |
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