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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
LANGUAGE STUDY: FORMING OPPOSITES
When forming opposites (antonyms) there are several prefixes which can be used, for example un - (as in unknown). The following words (not all used in this text but often found in legal language) can be used with prefixes un -, in -, il - or im - to form their opposites. Write them down using the correct prefix. Use a dictionary if necessary.
7. READING FOR DETAIL. Read the text carefully to answer the following questions. 1. What are the main principles underlying the system of government of the United States? 2. What are the governmental systems in the US? 3. What does ‘decentralization of power’ mean? 4. What powers are delegated to the federal government? 5. What powers belong to the states? 6. How are powers of state and local governments limited? 7. What is the advantage of decentralization of power? 8. What is the essence of the theory of ‘separation of power’? 9. How is the theory realized in the American Constitution? 10. What does the system of checks and balances mean? 11. What is it used for? SPEAKING. 8.1 Define the following: federal government/state government/ local government/ legislature/ executive/ judiciary/ separation of power/ decentralization of power/ checks and balances
8.2 Without looking at the text complete the following sentences. A new form of government designed in the course of the Constitutional Convention in May 1787 was called … The main principles of federal system are … Decentralization of power means that power is shared between … The governmental systems in the United States are … The Constitution limits the federal government to specific powers, such as … All others automatically belong to … The states and local communities in the US have rights that in other countries generally belong to … Each state has its government and also its … All states must respect … Within the states local authorities must make their laws and regulations so that … The theory of separation of powers was developed by … Separation of power means that power is shared among … The system of checks and balances means that each branch exercises control over … The system of checks and balances is used to keep any branch from … 8.3 Take turns to describe: − decentralization of power − separation of power − checks and balances 8.4 Study the examples of separation of power with checks and balances in the text and answer the following question. Give your reasons. What branch of government has ultimate (supreme) power under the US Constitution?
DEVELOPMENT. 9.1 Choose the best word from the list below to complete the sentences. The number in brackets shows how many times a given word appears in the text. There are … a … main functions of government. These are the … b …, the … c …, the … d … The theory of separation of powers states that these functions should be carried out by … e … bodies. The British constitution does not … f … to this theory. The same people are members of the … g … and the … h … and there are some … i … functions which are carried out by the courts. The distinction is clearer in the constitution of the … j … where the executive, legislative and judicial roles are performed by … k … bodies. The theory is rather prescriptive than descriptive of the liberal system of government, an essential feature of which is that the … l … should be … m … of the … n … and the … o …
independent; legislature (2); United States; conform; executive (3); judicial; three; different (2); judiciary; administrative; legislative; 9.2 Translate the following extract into Russian in writing. Use a dictionary. “When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body, there can be no liberty … Again, there is no liberty, if the judicial power be not separated from the legislative and executive. Were it joined with the legislative, the life and liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control, for the judge would be the legislator. Were it joined to the executive, however, the judge might behave with violence and oppression. There would be an end to everything, were the same man or the same body, whether of the nobles or of the people, to exercise those three powers, that of enacting laws, that of executing the public resolutions, and that of judging the cases of individuals.” Montesquieu, De l’Esprit des Lois
10. PRESENTATION. Use the information from the text and the vocabulary you have learnt in the exercises above, to describe the American Constitutional Principles.
11. RESEARCH. 11.1 To what extent does the government of your country conform to the theory of separation of powers? To answer this question identify the three branches of government in your country and find out whether their functions are performed by different people or bodies. 11.2 Write a short essay of 200 words on what you understand by separation of powers and the reasons for maintaining it. You may find the following plan helpful: a) Define the theory. b) The reasons for the theory. c) To what extent does it apply to the Belarusian Constitution? d) Compare with the US Constitution.
UNIT III
THE LIVING CONSTITUTION This Constitution was not perfect; it is not perfect today even with amendments, but it has continued longer than any other written form of government. It fulfilled the promises of the Declaration of Independence of 1776, which expressed people’s desire to be free and to develop the talents given to them by the Creator. 1. BEFORE YOU READ. Think about the subject of the text in general. 1. What is a constitution? 2. What does it establish and guarantee? 3. What is the difference between a constitution and a bill of rights? 4. What do you know about written and unwritten constitutions? 5. What do you think the ‘living constitution’ means?
1.1 Read the passage below to check your predictions. A constitution – a set of rules which detail a country’s system of government; in most cases it will be a written document, but in some countries, including Britain, the constitution cannot be found in one document, and is known as unwritten constitution. Constitutions essentially set out broad principles concerning who makes law and how, and allocate power between the main branches of government – legislature, executive and judiciary. They may also indicate the basic values on which the country is governed, such as the idea that citizens should not be punished unless they have broken the law, or that certain rights and freedoms should be guaranteed. 2. FIRST READING. Skim the text and give each paragraph a suitable heading. The former colonies, now ‘the United States of America’, first operated under an agreement called the Articles of Confederation (1781). It was soon clear that this loose agreement among the states was not working well. The central, federal government was too weak with too few powers for defense, trade, and taxation. In 1787, therefore, delegates from the states met in Philadelphia (the city where the Declaration of Independence had been issued earlier). They wanted to revise the Articles, but they did much more than that. They wrote a completely new document, the Constitution, which after much argument, debate, and compromise was finished in the same year and officially adopted by the thirteen states by 1790. The Constitution contains the preamble, seven basic articles and twenty seven amendments. The articles set the basic form of government: three separate branches, each one having powers that the two others do not have and each having powers over the others (checks and balances). The system of checks and balances works to keep one branch or another from making serious mistakes. The Constitution specifies only the powers and duties of each federal branch of government; all other powers and duties belong to the states and local communities. But all governments, federal, state and local, must operate within its guidelines. The ultimate power under the Constitution is not given to the President (the executive branch), Congress (the legislative branch), or the Supreme Court (the judicial branch). Nor does it belong, as in many other countries, to a political group or party. It belongs to “We the People”, in fact and in spirit. But the Founding Fathers did not intend to establish a static system which was incapable of change to meet changing conditions. They referred to the Constitution as a “living document” which should be changed or interpreted to meet the changing needs of society – and they did just that. Article V of the Constitution specifies the procedures to amend the Constitution and ratify amendments. The US Constitution has been formally amended only twenty-seven times in more than two centuries. To all Americans, the first ten Constitutional Amendments known together as the Bill of Rights, adopted in 1791, is another basic foundation of their representative democracy. In the Bill of Rights, Americans are guaranteed freedom of religion, of speech and of the press. They have the right to assemble in public places, to protest government actions and to demand change. They have the right to own weapons if they wish. Because of the Bill of Rights, neither police nor soldiers can stop and search a person without good reason. They also cannot search a person’s home without legal permission to do so. The Bill of Rights guarantees Americans the right to a speedy trial if accused of a crime. The trial must be by a jury and the accused person must be allowed representation by a lawyer and must be able to call in witnesses to speak for him or her. Cruel and unusual punishment is forbidden. There were 17 other amendments to the Constitution as of 1991. Indeed, that is not many changes considering that the Constitution was written in 1787. Only a few need to be mentioned here. One forbids slavery and three others guarantee citizenship and full rights of citizenship to all people regardless of race. Another gives women the right to vote and another lowers the national voting age to 18 years. There are some Americans who feel that an eighteenth-century document is inadequate to meet the needs of the government of the United States of the twenty first century. The complex problems of modern society, they say, require more efficient political mechanisms. The obvious answer to those who would circumvent or abolish the Constitution is that it has, so far, proved adequate when it has been followed. It should be understood, however, that the Constitution is not merely the original document of 1787.
3. SCANNING READING. Scan the text to find the following information: 1. When was the United States Constitution written (adopted)? 2. What parts does it consist of? 3. What Article specifies the procedure to amend the Constitution? 4. When was the Constitution amended last time? 4. READING FOR GENERAL UNDERSTANDING. Choose a), b), or c) to complete the sentences.
1. When the delegates from the states met in Philadelphia in 1787, they wanted to … a) issue the Declaration of Independence b) write the Constitution c) revise the Articles of Confederation 2. The US Constitution specifies the powers and duties of … a) all governments in the US b) each branch of the federal government c) each branch of state and local governments 3. The supreme power under the Constitution belongs to … a) a political party b) the people c) the Supreme Court 4. The American Bill of Rights … a) is a separate document b) consists of 27 Constitutional Amendments c) includes the first 10 Amendments to the Constitution 5. The Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution in … a) 1781 b) 1791 c) 1991 6. The Bill of Rights guarantees … a) the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness b) freedom from slavery c) basic rights and freedoms
5.WORD STUDY. 5.1 Find a word or a phrase in the text that has a similar meaning. Suggest the Russian.
5.2 Match the following verbs from the text to their Russian equivalents. Use the context of the text to help you.
5.3 Complete the table below with the missing verb or noun forms from the text.
5.4 Find in the text the English for: свобода слова, вероисповедания, печати право собираться в публичных местах выражать протест по поводу действий правительства требовать изменений право на владение оружием обыскивать человека без достаточного основания право на скорый суд суд присяжных право быть представленным адвокатом жестокие и необычные наказания запрещены вызывать свидетелей в свою пользу отменить рабство гарантировать гражданство снизить возраст избирателей до 18 лет 5.5 Fill in the synonyms from the list. to prohibit, to ensure; to meet; to possess; lawful; to repeal; to require; evident; basis; to permit
5.6 Choose the words from the list to fill in the gaps. Suggest the Russian. citizenship; change; agreement; trial; document; vote; Founding; actions; voting; lawyer; Bill; call in; own; accused; forbidden; forbid; assemble; search;
5.7 Fill in the prepositions from the list where necessary. to; in; from; without; by; over; within; of; to have powers … the others; to keep one branch or another … making serious mistakes; to belong … sb (sth); to operate … the guidelines; …fact and … spirit; to search a person … legal permission; accused … a crime; trial … jury; representation … a lawyer; regardless … race; 6. READING FOR DETAIL. Read the text carefully to answer the following questions. 1. Why did delegates from the states meet in Philadelphia in May 1787? 2. What did they do? 3. What do the articles of the Constitution establish? 4. How is the principle of decentralization of power realized in the Constitution? 5. Which of the three branches of the US government has ultimate power? 6. What did the Founding Fathers provide for to make the Constitution a ‘living document’? 7. How many times has the Constitution been amended? 8. When was the Bill of Rights added to the Constitution? 9. What rights are guaranteed in the Bill of Rights? 10. What other important amendments regarding human rights were made to the Constitution as of 1991? 11. Is the US Constitution still a ‘living document’? SPEAKING. 7.1 Define the following: constitution/ unwritten constitution/ preamble/ article/ amendment
7.2 Without looking at the text complete the following sentences. The former colonies first operated under an agreement called … This agreement among the states was not working well because … In 1787 delegates from the states met in Philadelphia, the city where … They wanted to revise the Articles, but … The Constitution contains … The articles set the basic form of government with … The Constitution specifies only the powers and duties of … The ultimate power under the Constitution belongs to … Article V of the Constitution specifies the procedures to … The US Constitution has been formally amended … times in more than two centuries. The first ten Constitutional Amendments are known together as … There were … other amendments to the Constitution as of 1991. The Constitution has, so far, proved adequate when … 7.3 Take turns to describe the following: − How did the US Constitution come into being? − What does the Constitution set up? − What significant changes have been made to the Constitution since 1790? − Is the US Constitution still a living document?
LANGUAGE STUDY: SHALL a) Study the following information. GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE MODAL VERB SHALL We use shall to express: advice – Shall I buy that car? (Стоит мне покупать эту машину? ) offers – Shall I/we do it for you? (Мне/нам сделать это для вас? ) suggestions – Shall we dance? (Потанцуем? ) obligation – (in written laws, conventions, regulations and other legal documents) The fine shall not exceed $100. (Штраф не должен превышать 100 долларов.) It shall be unlawful for any person to bring drugs into this country. (Закон запрещает ввозить наркотики в эту страну.) All legislative powers shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and a House of Representatives. (Все законодательные полномочия предоставляются Конгрессу Соединенных Штатов, который состоит из сената и палаты представителей.) b) Note the use of ‘shall’ in the meaning of ‘obligation’ and translate the following sentences from the US Constitution into Russian in writing. Mind that sometimes ‘shall’ is not translated into Russian whatsoever. Use a dictionary. “The right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any other state on account of age.” “The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year …” “The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January …” “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged on account of sex.” “The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes …” “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any other state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” “No state shall make any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States.” “No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner …” DEVELOPMENT. 9.1 Read the Preamble to the US Constitution. “We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, ensure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”
a) Find the corresponding English equivalents in the Preamble. установить правосудие, способствовать всеобщему благосостоянию, сохранить благословения свободы, сформировать более совершенный союз, обеспечить совместную оборону, гарантировать внутреннее спокойствие; b) Translate the Preamble into Russian in writing.
9.2 The following extract is the First Amendment to the US Constitution. Read it and complete the tasks below. “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibition the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances”.
a) Match the words and word combinations to their synonyms and Russian equivalents.
b) Write out the freedoms included in the First Amendment.
− The included freedoms are … − What kind of rights are they? They are … − Whose power do they limit? They limit the power of … − Whose power do they enlarge? They declare the power of … c) You are writing a new Belarusian constitution. Which freedoms would you include? You can add your own. 9.3 Translate the following extract from a newspaper article written to the Bicentennial of the Constitution. It was the 17th day of September, 1787. Delegates from twelve States had finished their task of making the Articles of Confederation “adequate to the needs of the Union.” As one by one they stepped up to the table to add their names to that of George Washington, President, on the finished document, Benjamin Franklin, looking towards the President’s chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, observed to a few members near him that painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun. “I have, ” said he, “often and often in the course of the Convention, looked at that behind the President without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting. But now at length I have the happiness to know that it was a rising not a setting sun.” So it proved. We take that for granted now. But history gave little ground for confidence in 1787. What then caused Franklin to forecast a rising sun? The former colonies had held together to win a war against the most powerful nation in the Old World; they were, as Jefferson put it, “kindly separated by nature and a wide ocean” from the Old World and possessed a chosen country with “room enough for our descendants to the hundredth and thousandth generation”; and they were blessed with the most remarkable group of statesmen to be found anywhere in the Western world. Jefferson called them “an assembly of demigods.” Only a slight exaggeration that is: after all, if we were to summon a Constitutional Convention today, could we expect a Washington, a Hamilton, a Franklin or a Madison to participate? Could we expect that the debates would rise to the level of those in the Federal Convention of 1787 – and WHO would write a new set of Federalist Papers now? 10. PRESENTATION. Speak on the US Constitution. RESEARCH. 11.1 Compare the US Constitution with the Constitution of your own country. 1. What are the most striking differences between the two Constitutions? 2. Are there significant similarities?
11.2 Use the vocabulary from the text and your personal knowledge to describe in written form the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus. Include the following points: 1. How old is the Constitution? 2. What parts does it consist of? 3. How many articles are there in the Constitution? 4. Who has ultimate power under your Constitution? 5. Are there any amendments? 6. What rights and freedoms does the Constitution guarantee? UNIT IV
THE US LEGISLATURE “I was elected to legislate, but I’m lucky to spend only ten percent of my time at it. I spend the other ninety percent giving services to my constituents. The Congressman is a doorman to the big government bureaucracies in Washington. He opens the door to let in the constituent who has a perfect right to get in by himself but is often kept out by the bureaucrats.” TEXT 1. ORGANIZATION AND WORK IN CONGRESS 1. BEFORE READING. Test your general knowledge in the quiz below. TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE QUIZ 1. Which of the following means legislature? a) law-making process b) law-maker c) law-making body 2. Which of the following means legislator? a) lawyer b) law-maker c) law-breaker 3. Which of the following is the US legislature? a) National Assembly b) Congress c) Parliament 4. Which of the following are the Houses of Congress? a) the Senate and the House of Representatives b) the Lords and the Commons c) the Council of the Republic and the House of Representatives 5. Which of the following is the building where the US congressmen meet? a) the White House b) the Capitol c) the Pentagon 6. Which of the following is the responsibility of the legislative branch? a) to carry out the laws b) to interpret the laws c) to make the laws 2. FIRST READING. Skim the text. The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the national Government, and consists of two chambers or Houses – the Senate and the House of Representatives. Its existence, authority and limitations are provided by the Constitution, Article I, which begins as follows: “All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and a House of Representatives.” Functions The main function of Congress is to make the laws. The US Constitution also gives Congress the authority to levy taxes, to appropriate money requested by the executive branch of the government, to make rules for trade with foreign countries, to organize the armed forces, to declare war, to coin money, etc. Another power possessed by Congress is the right toproposeamendmentsto the Constitution when two-thirds of both Houses consider it necessary. Work Under the Constitution a new Congress commences on the 3rd of January each odd - numbered year and continues for two years, regardless of the number of regular and specialsessions held. There must be one regular session each year. A session of Congress usually means that both the Senate and House of Representatives are in session, i.e. meeting for the transaction of business. The time of meetings is fixed by each House. Each House, under the Constitution, keeps a journal of its proceedings, called the Congressional Record. The Congressional Record contains a complete record of everything said on the floor of both Houses. Members of Congress All members of Congress are called Congressmen. However, a member of the Senate is usually referred to as a Senator and a member of the House of Representatives as a Congressman, though the official title of a member of the House is ‘Representative in Congress’. There are no specifically defined duties for a member of Congress. He is required to be present when Congress is in session unless he is excused to perform official business elsewhere or because of illness. The House sergeant - at - arms is empowered to deduct from the member’s pay the proportional amount for every day of absence from sessions if the member is not officially excused or is not ill. Though the members’ salaries are not very high compared to comparable positions in business, congressmen enjoy numerous privileges during the term of their office. Each congressman is provided with an office in Washington and up to two offices in his home district; an allowance to cover his staff members; a mileage allowance for traveling expenses; an allowance for stationery, office equipment, telephone and fax service; a number of publicly paid trips to his home district and so on to make the congressman’s work in Washington more effective. In addition, there are numerous fringe benefits such as dining halls, swimming pools, gyms, health service and other services to make the congressman’s work in Washington more pleasant. Many people believe that nearly all members of Congress are in their chambers most of the day. They imagine that heated debates about legislationare constantly going on. They think that most of the work of Congress actually is done on the House and Senate ‘ floors ’. But a visitor who watches the House and the Senate loses these ideas quickly. Unless the Congressmen are called in to cast their votes for or against a bill, most of them seldom appear on the floor. The visitor usually sees only a few Congressmen there – usually chatting, reading their mail, and paying little attention to anyone having the floor. (They can read the speech in the Congressional Record next day.) Voting Votes are taken in American Congress in four different ways. Usually the Speaker or the Vice-President says, “As many as are in favor say ‘Aye’! ” and then, “As many as are opposed say ’No’! ”. In most cases it is enough. But if any member is in doubt, or if it sounds close, those in favor are asked to stand up and be counted; then those opposed to the proposition to stand up and be counted. The Speaker or Vice President does the counting in his chamber and announces the result. If there is still doubt, two tellers are appointed to do the counting. They take their place at the head of the central aisle. All Congressmen in favor of the proposition walk between them and are counted, then those opposed do the same. The fourth way is the roll - call, where the names of all Congressmen are called out and they answer ‘Aye’ or ‘No’.
3. READING FOR GENERAL UNDERSTANDING. Read the text to complete each of the sentences below. 1. Article … of the Constitution provides for the existence, authority and limitations of Congress. a) I b) II c) III 2. The US Congress is the … legislature. a) state b) national c) local 3. The main function of Congress is to … a) debate b) legislate c) vote 4. A newly elected Congress begins its work on the … each odd-numbered year. a) 3rd of June b) 1st Monday in December c) 3rd of January 5. Congressional elections are held every … years. a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 6. The Congressional Record is a … a) disc on which speeches of congressmen are registered b) written journal of everything said in both Houses c) media report of congressional activities 7. All members of Congress are called … a) representatives b) congressmen c) senators
WORD STUDY. 4.1 Study the meanings of the words, then choose the proper meaning of each word in the sentences below.
1. Congressmen enjoy numerous privilegesduring the term of their office. 2. The offered terms of contract were finally agreed to. 3. Each congressman is provided with an office in the Capitol and up to two offices in his home district. 4. On holidays most factories, offices and shops are closed. 5. Mr. Smith’s office is on the ground floor. 6. In Britain, the ground floor is just like the first floor in the United States. 7. The Congressional Record contains a complete record of everything said on the floor of both Houses. 8. They think that most of the work of Congress actually is done on the House and Senate ‘floors’ 9. The visitor usually sees only a few Congressmen there – usually chatting, reading their mail, and paying little attention to anyone having the floor. 10. The main function of Congress is to make the laws. 11. The medical congress is likely to commence in January. 12. A Congressman is required to be present when Congress is in session if he is not excused to perform official business elsewhere or because of illness. 13. A session of Congress usually means that both the Senate and House are in session, i.e. meeting for the transaction of business. 14. Though the members’ salaries are not very high compared to comparable positions in business … 15. If there is still doubt, two tellers are appointed to count votes. 16. ATM is the abbreviation for automated teller machine. 17. All legislative powers shall be vested in a Congress of the United States. 18. The President has exceeded his powers. 19. The official title of a member of the House is ‘Representative in Congress’. 20. Does he have any title to the land? 21. It’s wrong to leave a hotel without paying all your bills. 22. The Congressmen were called in to vote for or against the bill. 23. In the UK both the constitution and the Bill of Rights are unwritten. 24. Do you have change for a $20 bill?
4.2 Find in the text the English for: власть, полномочие; издавать законы; облагать налогами; устанавливать правила торговли с иностранными государствами; создавать вооруженные силы; объявлять войну; чеканить деньги; предлагать поправки к конституции; нечетный; количество проводимых сессий; ведение дел; назначать время заседаний; вести протокол заседаний; Официальный Бюллетень Конгресса; содержать полный протокол; официальный титул; парламентский пристав; высчитывать (вычитать); жалованье; пользоваться привилегиями; пособие; пособие на транспортные расходы; дополнительные льготы; горячие споры; закон (законодательство); отдать голос за или против; выступающий в палате; проводить голосование; те, кто ‘за’; те, кто ‘против’; проводить подсчет голосов; центральный проход; поименное голосование (перекличка); 4.3 Match the words on the left to their definitions on the right.
4.4 Fill in the synonyms from the list. Use the context of the text if necessary. law; to speak in a debate; without regard to; in the chambers; personnel; arguments; to vote; to begin; power; to authorize; spending; to legislate; to call sb as;
4.5 Choose the words from the list to fill in the gaps. benefits; coin; debates; propose; Record; privileges; amount; levy; call; mileage; transaction; legislative; declare; central
4.6 Fill in the prepositions from the list where necessary. to; in; of; with; to consist …; to vest power … sb (sth); regardless …; to be … session; to refer … sb as; to be provided … sth; to be … favor …; to be opposed …; LANGUAGE STUDY: UNLESS a) Look at these sentences from the text: (1) He is required to be present when Congress is in session unless he is excused to perform official business elsewhere or because of illness. (2) Unless the Congressmen are called in to cast their votes for or against a bill, most of them seldom appear on the floor.
b) Study the following rules: The use of the word ‘unless’ is very typical of the language of the law. However, students often confuse this word with the word ‘until’.
1) We use unless to make an exception to something we say. Instead of unless it is possible to say if … not. Here are some examples of unless: − Don’t tell Ann what I said unless she asks you. (= if she doesn’t ask you) − I’ll come tomorrow unless I have to work. (= if I don’t have to work)
2) We often use unless in warnings: − We’ll be late unless we hurry. (= if we don’t hurry) − Unless you work harder, you’re not going to pass the exam. (= if you don’t work harder) − The man said he would hit me unless I told him where the money was. (= if I didn’t tell him)
3) When you are talking about the future, do not use will with unless. Use a present tense: – We’ll be late unless we hurry. (not ‘unless we will hurry’)
c) Complete the following exercises to test your understanding of ‘unless’ . Exercise 1 Read a sentence and then write a new sentence with the same meaning. Use ‘ unless’ in your sentences. Example: You must study more or you won’t pass the examination. You won’t pass the examination unless you study more.
1) You must listen carefully or you won’t know what to do. You won’t know what to do … 2) We must hurry or we’ll miss the train. We’ll … 3) You must speak very slowly or he will not understand you. He … 4) My salary must be increased or I’ll look for another job. … 5) She must apologize to me or I won’t forgive her. … Exercise 2 Now read a sentence with ‘only if’ and then write a new sentence with ‘unless’ . Example: Joe can hear only if you shout. Joe can’t hear unless you shout.
1) I’m going to the party only if you go too. I’m not going to the party … 2) You are allowed into the club only if you are a member. You’re not … 3) The dog will attack you only if you move. The dog … 4) He’ll speak to you only if you ask him a question. He … Exercise 3 This time you have to choose ‘unless’ or ‘provided/providing (that)’ for each sentence. REMEMBER: unless = if … not; provided/providing (that) = only if Example: You can use my car unless/provided it’s raining. (‘provided’ is correct)
1) I’m playing tennis tomorrow unless/provided it’s raining. 2) We’re going to start painting the house tomorrow unless/providing it’s not raining. 3) You can smoke in here unless/provided that you leave a window open. 4) George doesn’t trust anyone. He won’t lend you any money unless/providing that you promise in writing to pay him back. 5) The children can stay here unless/providing they don’t make too much noise. 6) I’m going now unless/provided you want me to stay. 7) I can understand why he’s late unless/ provided he didn’t get our message. d) Now read the sentences in a) again and translate them into English using your knowledge of ‘unless’ . 6. READING FOR DETAIL Read the text carefully to answer the following questions. 1. What is the composition of Congress? 2. How does Article I of the Constitution begin? 3. What are the functions of Congress under the Constitution? 4. When does a new Congress commence and how long does it last? 5. What does a session of Congress mean? What are the two kinds of sessions? 6. What is the Congressional record? 7. What does the Congressional Record contain? 8. What are members of both Houses called? What are their official titles? 9. Are there any specifically defined duties for a member of Congress? 10. How can the House sergeant-at-arms compel the attendance of absent members? 11. Are congressmen paid well for their services? 12. What privileges do congressmen enjoy to make their work more effective and more pleasant? 13. What are the different ways of voting in Congress? SPEAKING. 7.1 Define the following: legislature/ legislator/ legislation/ Congress/ Capitol/ session/ Congressional Record/ floor/ to have the floor/ salary/ allowance/ roll-call
7.2 Without looking at the text complete the following sentences. The Congress of the United States consists of … The main function of Congress is to … The US Constitution also gives Congress the authority to … Under the Constitution a new Congress commences on … A session of Congress usually means that … There are two kinds of sessions: … Each House, under the Constitution, keeps a journal of its proceedings, called … The Congressional Record contains a complete record of … All members of Congress are called … A member of the Senate is usually referred to as … and a member of the House as a … A member of Congress is required to be present when Congress is in session unless … The members’ salaries are not very high compared to … Congressmen enjoy numerous privileges such as … In addition, there are numerous fringe benefits such as … Votes are taken in American Congress in … different ways.
7.3 Take turns to describe the following aspects of the US legislature: − composition − functions − work − members’ titles and duties − members’ salaries and privileges − voting DEVELOPMENT. 8.1 Read the extract about the office of sergeant-at-arms and translate it into Russian in writing. Use a dictionary. The office of sergeant-at-arms is derived from a similar office in both Houses of the British Parliament. The sergeant-at-arms is, above all, the chief disciplinary officer and is empowered to enforce order on the floor; also, he is the disbursing officer for members’ salary and mileage. Both officers share joint responsibilities, such as, policing the Capitol and the grounds. Finally, in each House, its sergeant-at-arms, by the direction of the presiding officer, may compel the attendance of absent members. The House sergeant-at-arms has a symbol of office, the mace. During sessions the mace is placed on its pedestal. It remains there while the Congress is in session except when it is being borne by the sergeant-at-arms to enforce order on the floor. The mace is a symbol, not an implement, and its solemn exhibition is sufficient. 9. PRESENTATION. Speak on the Organization and Work in Congress. TEXT 2. BICAMERAL LEGISLATURE 1. BEFORE READING. Look at the title of the text and suggest what the prefix bi - means in the word bicameral. Compare with other words with the same prefix ( bisexual, biplane, bigamy, andbikini ). What do you think the text may be about? 2. FIRST READING. Divide into two groups. Group A Read about the Senate Group B Read about the House of Representatives Популярное:
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