Read the text. Pick out all the points concerning the first Celtic settlers who came to Britain from northern France.

The chief countries where the Celts settled were France (which the Romans called Gaul) and Britain. The Romans were always afraid of sudden attacks by tribes of Gauls, especially on the road running along the south coast of France to Spain, along which there were many rich cities. So they decided that they would never be safe until they had conquered the whole of Gaul, and in 59 B.C. Julius Caesar led a large army against the Gauls and spent 7 years fighting before he had conquered them. He knew that Celts in Britain were helping Gauls, and he twice invaded Britain but did not have enough troops to be able to occupy it. So Britain remained free for another 100 years.

The first Celtic settlers came to Britain from northern France about 450 B.C. They quickly overran the native inhabitants and spread all over England as far as the Welsh and Scottish borders. Each tribe lived in its own part of the country under its own king.

One of the most powerful of these kings was Cymbeline, who ruled at Colchester for many years after Caesar's invasion. He lived in a great palace and used the beet which he had brought especially from Rome. He even minted coins for his people. He had a fleet of ships which traded with Gaul and Italy Shakespeare wrote a play about him.

When the Romans conquered Britain, many Celts fled to Iceland and Scotland. Although the Romance did reach the south of Scotland, they never conquered it, and they never crossed to Ireland. So, the Celts survived there unharmed for over 1.OOO years.

The Roman Empire in the 3d century A.D.

For 300 years there was peace in the Roman Empire. But towards the end of the 3d century A.D, two new enemies began to threaten the Romans - the Goths and the Parthians. The Goths came from south Germany and along the river Danube. Further east, beyond the river Tigris people called Parthians started to attack their neighbours.

The Roman Emperors did everything to hold off the attacks of the Goths and the Parthians. But the Roman Empire was too big, and Rome was too far away. It might take weeks for news of a Parthian invasion to reach the Emperor living in Rome and by the time he heard what happened, it was too late to do anything about it. So at last the Romans decided to divide the Empire into two -a Western and mainly Latin-speaking empire and an Eastern, Greek -speaking empire, with an emperor for each.But unfortunately the two emperors were always quarrelling. Also there was no great city like Rome to be the capital of the Eastern Empire.It locked as if the Roman Empire would come to an end.

Then after much fighting Constantine became sole ruler of the whole Empire and he soon restored peace and prosperity. He began to build a new city in the East to be the centre of the Greek-speaking half of the Empire, which was called Constantinople.

PART 2

Medieval history

Text 1

The first period of the middle ages

The first period of the Middle Ages lasted from the 5th to the 11th centuries. It was the period when the feudal system took shape in most European and Asian countries, when the two hostile classes the feudal lords and the serfs - came into being.

Under the feudal system most people worked on the land, which was the main source of wealth. But all the land belonged to the lords who forced the peasants to fulfil various duties.

Although the implements of labour were improved, agriculture was still quite backward and harvest yields were low. Natural economy was the predominant system in Western Europe. The serfs produced all. the necessaries of life. Merchants rarely came to the feudal estates. In Western Europe there were hardly any big towns; big cities with artisans and merchants remained only in Byzantium and countries of ' the East.

Throughout the first period of the Middle Ages the peasants fought against the introduction of serfdom and feudal oppression. They wanted to regain possession of their land and to restore the old communal system. In the Arab caliphate the working people's struggle against feudal oppression merged with the struggle of the subjugated nations against the conquerors. In the caliphate uprisings spread widely and lasted for many years.

In the first period of the Middle Ages Western Europe was divided into many small feudal states. Royal power was very weak. The class of feudal lords formed the feudal hierarchy. The landowners had wall fortified castles, their own armed forces and their own courts of justice. By these means they kept the people in domains in submission. The Church helped the feudal lords to oppress the people.

Strong central power existed in Byzantium and the Arab caliphate longer than in the West. But gradually the feudal lords became strong there as well. Imperial power in Byzantium grew much weaker and the Arab caliphate disintegrated.

Key words and expressions

hostile classes враждебные классы

a serf, serfdom крепостной, крепотсное право

the main sours of wealth основной источник

the implements of labour орудие труда

harvest yield урожай

feudal estates феодальные поместья

artisans and merchants ремесленники и купцы

natural economy натуральное хозяйство

Arab caliphate Арабский халифат

to subjugate nations покорять народы

uprising восстание

to keep the people in submission держать людей в повиновении

to disintegrate распадаться, разрушаться

Assignments

Find English equivalents in the text:

Враждебные классы, феодальная система, основной источник богатства, крестьяне, принадлежать, низкие урожаи, крепостные, натуральное хозяйство, феодальные поместья, купцы и ремесленники, крепостное право, держать людей в повиновении, восстание, королевская власть, укреплённые замки, распадаться.

2. Suggest Russian equivalents to the following:

To come into being, under the feudal system, the main source of wealth, to fulfill various duties, the implements of labour, natural economy, the predominant system, feudal estates, artisans, the peasants fought, staunchly against, the introduction of serfdom, feudal oppression, to regain possession of the land, to restore the old communal system, subjugated nations, uprising, royal power, the feudal hierarchy, well fortified castles, courts of justice, to keep people in submission, to oppress the working people, to disintegrate.

Find historical terms in the text, write them out.

4. Give definitions to the following:

The middle Ages, the feudal system, a serf, serfdom, feudal lords, natural economy, an artisan, a merchant, class struggle.

Interpretation of the text

1. Answer the questions:

1. How long did the first period of the Middle Ages last?

2. How can we define this period?

3. Whom did all the land belong to at that time?

4. What economy was predominant in Western Europe?

5. What does natural economy mean?

6. What did the peasants fight against in the first period of the Middle Ages?

7. Where did major uprisings take place in this period?

8. Who helped the feudal lords to oppress the working people?

Divide the text into logically complete parts writing out some topical sentences.

Write a short summary of the text.

Topical conversation

1. Describe the way of life of the two main classes of feudal society.

2. Discuss why natural economy was the predominant system in Western Europe up to the 11th century and how it influenced the state system.

3. Comment on the class struggle in this period.

4. Explain how the feudal lords managed to keep the huge number of serf in subjugation.

The development of the feudal system

The second period of the Middle Ages in the period of the further development of the feudal system. It lasted from the 11th to the end of the 15th century.

In this period the economy of European countries made considerable progress due to the tireless labour of the masses. Crafts gradually became separated from agriculture. Towns became craft and trade centres. Trade contacts were established between cities and villages and between different regions.

By using better implements the peasants were able to produce more grain. The nobles tried to take advantage of this; they increased peasants' taxes and made them pay quit-rent.

As the feudal exploitation grew, so grew the peasants' struggle against the nobles.

There were huge peasants' uprisings in many countries. The poorer townspeople supported the peasants and fought on their side. In some counties the heroic struggle of the peasant brought them liberation from serfdom.

But both land and power remained in the hands of the nobles, and consequently feudal oppression continued.

The growth of the cities and the development of trade in Western Europe paved the way for the formation of centralized states. The king used his power to protect the feudal lords and to help them suppress huge peasant uprisings. But the unification of the country was also desirable for the peasants and townspeople, since in a centralized state there were no more internecine wars and highway robbery. This led to the further development of the countries of Europe.

In the second period of the Middle Ages the level of economic and cultural development in the Orient was higher than in Western Europe. But continuous invasions greatly damaged the economy and culture of the countries of the East.

Key words and expressions

further дальнейшее развитие

tireless labour неустанный труд

crafts and trade ремёсла и торговля

to produce grain производить зерно

to take advantage воспользоваться чем-либо

peasants' tax феодальная пошлина крестьян

quit-rent земельная рента

to pave the way продолжить путь

to suppress uprisings подавлять восстания

internecine wars междоусобные войны

highway robbery грабёж на большой дороге

Assignments

Find English equivalents in the text:

Дальнейшее развитие, значительный прогресс, неустанный труд, лучшие орудия труда, воспользоваться, борьба против дворян, большие крестьянские восстания, поддерживать крестьян, героическая борьба, освобождение от крепостного права, оставаться в руках дворян, феодальное угнетение, рост городов, развитие торговли, образование централизованных государств, королевская власть, междоусобные войны, грабёж на большой дороге, продолжительные набеги.

2. Suggest Russian equivalents to the following:

Considerable progress, tireless labour, better implements, to produce now grain, to take advantage of smth, to increase peasants' taxes, to pay quit-rent, huge peasants pricings, to bring liberation from serfdom, feudal oppression, to pave the way, to protect the feudal lords, to suppress peasants' uprisings, internecine ware, highway robbery, continuous invasions.

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