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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
EARLY CHRISTIAN and BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE ⇐ ПредыдущаяСтр 2 из 2
Read the text: (§1) The art characteristic of the developed Byzantine Empire can be traced back to the period just before the reign of Justinian, c. AD 500. The style had enormous influence on both East and West. Early Byzantine art may to some extent be regarded as Roman art transformed under influence of the East. It reached a high point in the 6th century, rose again for a short time to new heights during the 11th and 12th centuries and still survives among Greek or orthodoxcommunities. (§2) The dominant Byzantine art was architecture. As in Early Christian times, the two chief types of church were basilican and the vaulted centralized church with its separate components gathered under a central dome. Of the latter type, the chief examples are SS Sergius and Bachus (526, Constantinople), San Vitaly (526-547, Ravenna). (§3) The outstanding example of a basilica which combined the longitudinal qualities of the basilica with the centralized volume of the martyrion was the church of Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) in Constantinople. It was constructed in a short span of five years (532-37) during the reign of Justinian. Hagia Sophia is without a clear antecedent in the architecture of late antiquity, yet it must be accounted as culminating several centuries of experimentation toward the realization of a unified space of monumental dimensions. Throughout the history of Byzantine religious architecture, the centrally planned structure continued in favor. (§4) Brick was the main material used for the construction of Byzantine churches. It was covered externally with plaster and internally with thin marble and mosaics above. Byzantine decoration was flat and incised in contrast to the bold modeling of western surfaces. (§5) The historian Procopius wrote of the great church: “Through the harmony of its measurements it is distinguished by the indescribable beauty ”. (§6) By the 9th century, the Byzantine style was wide spread throughout the countries of the Near East and Eastern Europe, where the Greek and Orthodox religion was followed and was beginning to appear in Russia (the Cathedral of St Sophia in Kiev, Figure 1.1). These Byzantine churches followed the plan of a Greek cross, that is, a central domed space with four short square arms (evolved c. 7th century). This form of church eventually became almost universal, focusing in the brilliantly lit central space dissolved mystically into the dark screens and galleries in the arms of the cross. (§7) Examples are to be seen in the small Metropolitan Cathedral in Athens and at churches in Daphni, Salonica, and Stiris. (§8) Secular architecture in the Byzantine Empire has left fewer traces. Foremost among these are the ruins of the 5th-century walls of the city of Constantinople, consisting of an outer and an inner wall, each originally studded with 96 towers. Some of these can still be seen. Assignments: 1 Present phonetic reading of §§ 3, 6. Explain the expressions in bold from the text and make up sentences of your own.Use English-English dictionaries to help you. 3 Suggest the Russian equivalents: can be traced back; enormous influence; to reach a high point; Early Christian times; a central domed space; in the arms of the cross; the reign of Justinian; to some extent; the church of the Holy Wisdom; by the 9th century; to follow the plan of a Greek cross; to cover externally and internally; flat and incise; to become universal.
4 Give the English equivalents: нашей эры; под влиянием Востока; достигнуть высшей точки в развитии; православные общины; базиликальный и центрические типы; церковь святой Софии; покрывать штукатуркой мозаикой; неописуемая красота; ярко освещенное пространство; главный материал; может быть отнесен к периоду; появляться в России; широко распространяться.
5 Read the text again and answer the questions that follow (1-8): 1. When was Constantinople established? 2. Why did the Byzantine style influence greatly both the East and the West? 3. When did this style develop? 4. When did this style come to Russia? 5. How far did this style spread? 6. What was the dominant Byzantine art form? 7. What are the two chief types of churches of Byzantine period? 8. What can toy say about Byzantine decoration?
6 Say whether these sentences are true or false: 1. The style had enormous influence on the West. 2. It was Roman art transformed under influence of the East. 3. The dominant Byzantine art was architecture. 4. In Byzantine architecture there was only one type of church. 5. Stone was the main material used for the construction of Byzantine churches. 6. Hagia Sophia is a palace. 7. Byzantine architecture of the period of Hagia Sophia was markedly concerned with mathematics.
7 Give a literary translation of §§1, 2, 8. 8 You misheard the information. Make it more exact, putting questions: Example: A: This art can be traced back to the period just before the reign of Justinian. B: To what period can this art be traced back? 1. This style influenced both the East and the West. 2. The Byzantine style still survives among Greek and Orthodox communities. 3. The church of Holy Wisdom is the supreme example of this style. 4. The Byzantine style influenced the arts of Russia. 5. The basilica and centralized church were the main types of Byzantine architecture.
9 Match the beginnings of the sentences to their ends using the information from the text:
What is your impression of the information given in the text? Express your ideas in 3-4 sentences. In a paragraph of 70-100 words, and using your own words, as far as possible, summarize what the text tells us about and early Christian and Byzantine architecture. Find and present additional information on any church mentioned in the text. WORD LIST
Matthew Frederick (architect) Unit 3
Fig 2.1 Orders of Architecture ORDERS of ARCHITECTURE Read the text: (§1) The first step in architecture was simply the replacement of wooden pillars with stone ones, and the translation of the carpentry and brick structural forms into stone equivalents. This provided an opportunity for the expression of proportion and pattern. This expression eventually took the form of the invention or evolution of the stone “orders” of architecture. These orders, or arrangements of specific types of columns supporting an upper section called an entablature, defined the pattern of the columnar facades and upperworks that formed the basic decorative shell of buildings. (§2) The Greeks invented the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders. The Romans adapted all the Greek orders and also developed two orders of their own, the Tuscan and the Composite (Fig 3.1.). (§3) The oldest order, the Doric, is subdivided into Greek Doric and Roman Doric. The first is the simplest and has baseless columns as those of the Parthenon. Roman Doric has a base and was less massive. (§4) Both the Doric and the Ionic order appear to have originated in wood. The Temple of Hera in Olympia is the oldest well-preserved temple of Doric architecture. It was built just after 600 BC. The Doric order long remained the favourite order of the Greek mainland and western colonies, and it changed little throughout its history. The Ionic order evolved later, in eastern Greece. About 600 BC, in Asia Minor, the first intimation of the style appeared in stone columns with capitals elaborately carved in floral hoops. The order was always fussier, less stereotyped than Doric. The Ionic temples of the 6th century exceed in size and decoration even the most ambitious of their Classical successors. Such were the temples of Artemis at Ephesus in Asia Minor and the successive temples of Hera on the island of Samos. (§5) The Corinthian order originated in the 5th century BC in Athens. It had Ionic capital elaborated with acanthus leaves. In its general proportions it is very like the Ionic. For the first time the Corinthian order was used for temple exteriors. Due to its advantage of facing equally in four directions it was more adaptable than Ionic for corners. There are not many Greek examples of the Corinthian order. The Romans widely used it for its showiness. The earliest known instance ofthe Corinthian order used on the exterior is the monument of Lysicrates in Athens, 335/334 BC. (§6) A simplified version of the Roman Doric is the Tuscan order which has a very plain design, with a plain shaft, and a simple capital, base, and frieze. The Tuscan order is characterized by an unfluted shaft and a capital that only consist of an echinus and an abacus. In proportions it is similar to the Doric order, but overall it is significantly plainer. The column is normally seven diameters high. Compared to the other orders, the Tuscan order looks the most solid. It has a less decorated frieze and no mutules in the cornice. (§7) The Composite order is also a late Roman invention, combining the volutes of the Ionic with the leaves of the Corinthian order. Until the Renaissance it was not ranked as a separate order. Instead it was considered as a late Roman form of the Corinthian order. The column of the Composite order is ten diameters high.
Assignments: 1 Present phonetic reading of § 4. 2 Find equivalents in the text and give your own variants (paraphrase) to the following: initial, substitution, foundation, arise, adjustable, finding, suppose.
3 Explain the expressions in bold from the text and make up sentences of your own. Use English-English dictionaries to help you. 4 Read the text again and answer the questions that follow (1-6): 1. What determined the design of the order? 2. What is the order in Classical architecture? 3. Which orders were invented by the Greeks? 4. What is the difference between Greek Doric and Roman Doric? 5. What can be said about the evolution of the Ionic order? 6. Why did the Romans often use the Corinthian order?
5 Say whether these sentences are true or false: 1. The first step in architecture was simply the replacement of wooden pillars with stone ones. 2. Greek Doric has a base. 3. Doric changed a lot throughout its history. 4. The Ionic order evolved in eastern Greece. 5. The Corinthian order originated in the 5th century BC. 6. For the first time the Corinthian order was used for the temple interiors.
6 Give a literary translation of §§5, 6, 7. 7 What is your impression of the information given in the text? Express your ideas in 3-4 sentences. 8 In a paragraph of 70-100 words, and using your own words, as far as possible, summarize what the text tells us about orders of architecture. 9 Find and present additional information on any type of orders you like. WORD LIST
“Most architectural forms can be classified as additive, subtractive, shaped, or abstract. Additive forms appear to have been assembled from individual pieces. Subtractive forms appear to have been carved or cut from a previously “whole” form. Shaped or molded forms appear to have been formed from a plastic material through directly applied force. Abstract forms are of uncertain origin”. Matthew Frederick (architect) Unit 4
MORTARS Read the text: (§1) Mortar is the matrix used in the beds and the side joints of brickwork and for plastering walls and floors. Its functions are as follows: 1. To distribute the pressure throughout the brickwork; 2. To adhere and bind together the bricks; 3. To act as a non-conductor and prevent the transmission of heat, sound, and moisture from one side of wall to the other. (§2) Mortar consists of an inert aggregate bound by a cementing material. The cementing material is most important in determining characteristics of the mortar. The usual cementing materials used for constructional work are hydraulic limes or Portland cement. (§3) Clean, sharp pit sand is the best aggregate. Old bricks, burnt ballast or stones ground in a mortar mill may be used as substitutes for sand. (§4) Mortars may be classified as follows: a) cement mortars; b) cement-lime mortars; c) lime mortars. (§5) Lime Mortar. This is a mixture of quick lime and sand in the proportion of 1 part lime to 2 or 3 parts sand in addition to water. It is the principal material used for bedding and jointing bricks, stones etc. (§6) Non-hydraulic Lime Mortars must be well slaked before use. This type can be stored in a heap for several days after mixing. These mortars are not suitable for work below ground level, especially if the ground is water-logged. (§7) Hydraulic Lime Mortars should be used within an hour after being mixed. Any mortar which has stiffened and cannot be knocked up by means of a trowel to a sufficiently plastic condition should never be used. (§8) Cement Mortars. It is stronger than lime mortar and it is used in the construction of piers and load-bearing walls; it is also employed for work below ground level and for external walls. Cement Mortar is extensively used during winter, owing to its relatively quick-setting property. (§9) Lime-Cement or Compo Mortars . Compo is a mixture of lime, cement and sand. It is usual to mix the lime mortar and then to gauge this mixture with the necessary proportion of Portland cement immediately before the mortar is required for use. (§10) Cement Mortar produces the strongest brickwork; non-hydraulic lime mortar is approximately half the strength of that in cement mortar; hydraulic mortars are intermediate between that of cement and non-hydraulic lime mortars. The strength of compo mortars depend upon the cement content and may be very little less than that of cement mortar.
Assignments: 1 Present phonetic reading of §§ 5 – 8. 2 Explain the expressions in bold from the text and make up sentences of your own. Use English-English dictionaries to help you. 3 Give the English equivalents: строительный раствор; состоять из; обычные материалы; гасить; болотистая местность; с помощью кельмы; свойство; зависеть от содержания цемента; разнообразные цели; заменитель песка; строительство плотин; Портленд цемент; предотвращать трансмиссию. 4 Read the text again and answer the questions that follow (1-9): 1. What is the definition of mortar? 2. What are the functions of mortar? 3. What does mortar consist of? 4. What material can be used instead of sand? 5. How can mortars be classified? 6. What are the types of lime mortar? 7. What are the peculiarities of cement mortar? Compo mortar? 8. What mortar is the strongest one? The weakest one?
5 Say whether these sentences are true or false: 1. Old bricks can be used instead of sand. 2. One of the functions of mortar is to prevent porosity of mortars. 3. Non-hydraulic mortar is the weakest one. 4. Compo mortar is the mixture of lime, brick and water. 5. The usual cementing materials used for constructional work are hydraulic limes or Portland cement. 6. The strength of compo mortars doesn’t depend upon the cement content.
6 Give a literary translation of §§7 – 10. 7 Fill in the table using the information from the text:
8 What is your impression of the information given in the text? Express your ideas in 3-4 sentences. 9 In a paragraph of 70-100 words, and using your own words, as far as possible, summarize what the text tells us about mortars. 10 Find and present additional information on any type of mortars you like. WORD LIST
“Gently suggest material qualities rather than draw them in a literal manner.” Matthew Frederick (architect) Unit 5 GLASS
Figure 4.1 Glazed Facade (Faculty of Law, University of Cambridge) (§1)The term glass refers to materials, usually blends of metallic oxides, predominantly silica, which do not crystallise when cooled from the liquid to the solid state. It is the non-crystalline or amorphous structure of glass that gives rise to its transparency. Glass made from sand, lime and soda ash has been known in Egypt for 5000 years, although it probably originated in Assyria and Phoenicia. The earliest man-made glass was used to glaze stone beads, later to make glass beads (circa 2500 BC), but it was not until about 1500 BC that it was used to make hollow vessels. (§2)For many centuries glass was worked by drawing the molten material from a furnace. The glass was then rolled out or pressed into appropriate moulds and finally fashioned by cutting and grinding. Around 300 BC the technique of glass blowing evolved in Assyria, and the Romans developed this further by blowing glass into moulds. Medieval glass produced in the Rhineland contained potash from the burning of wood rather than soda ash. Together with an increase in lime content this gave rise to a less durable product which has caused the subsequent deterioration of some church glass from that period. (§3)The various colours within glass derived from the addition of metallic compounds to the melt. Blue was obtained by the addition of cobalt, whilst copper produced blue or red and iron or chromium produced green. In the fifteenth century white opaque glass was produced by the addition of tin or arsenic, and by the seventeenth century ruby red glass was made by the addition of gold chloride. Clear glass could only be obtained by using antimony or manganese as a decolouriser to remove the green colouration caused by iron impurities within the sand. (§4)By the late twentieth century, with the advent of fully glazed facades, as illustrated by the Faculty of Law building at the University of Cambridge (Figure 4.1.), the construction industry had become a major consumer of new glass, and a proactive force in the development of new products. (§5)The glass products fall into principal two types: non-sheet products and sheet products. (§6)One of the non-sheet product examples is glass blocks. Glass blocks for non-load-bearing walls and partitions are manufactured by casting two half-blocks at 1050 °C, joining them together at 800°C, followed by annealing at 560 °C. The standard blocks (Figure 4.2.a) are 115, 190, 240 and 300 mm square with thicknesses of 80 and 100 mm, although rectangular and circular blocks are also available. Walls may be curved as illustrated in (Figure 4.2.b). The variety of patterns, offering differing degrees of privacy, include clear, frosted, Flemish, reeded, and crystal designs with colours ranging from blue, green and grey to pink and gold. Blocks with solar reflective glass or incorporating white glass fibres offer additional solar control; colour may be added to either the edge coating or the glass itself. Special blocks are also available to form corners and ends also for ventilation.
(§7)The variety of sheet products is determined by the new techniques development and cannot be described in one unit. Some types of glass are presented below. (§8)Sheet products are manufactured in the form of float glass. The standard thicknesses for float glass are 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 19 and 25 mm to maximum sheet sizes of 3× 12 m. Thicker grades are available to smaller sheet sizes. (§9)Traditional blown and drawn glasses are available commercially both clear and to a wide range of colours. Drawn glass up to 1600× 1200 mm is optically clear but varies in thickness from 3 to 5 mm. It is suitable for conservation work where old glass requires replacement. Blown glass contains variable quantities of air bubbles and also has significant variations in thickness giving it an antique appearance. Where laminated glass is required, due to variations in thickness, these traditional glasses can only be bonded to float glass with resin. (§10) Self-cleaning glass has an invisible hard coating which incorporates two special features. The surface incorporating titanium dioxide is photocatalytic, absorbing ultra-violet light, which with oxygen from the air, breaks down or loosens any organic dirt on the surface. Additionally, the surface is hydrophilic, causing rainwater to spread evenly over the surface, rather than running down in droplets, thus uniformly washing the surface and preventing any unsightly streaks or spots appearing when the surface dries. Self-cleaning glass has a slightly greater mirror effect than ordinary float glass, with a faint blue tint.
Figure 4.3 Screen printed glass facade (John Lewis Department Store, Leicester) (§11)White or coloured ceramic frit is screen printed onto clear or tinted float glass, which is then toughened and heat soaked, causing the ceramic enamel to fuse permanently into the glass surface. Standard patterns or individual designs may be created, giving the required level of solar transmission and privacy. Screen printed glass, which is colourfast and abrasion-resistant, is usually installed with the printed side as the inner face of conventional glazing (Figure 4.3). Assignments: 1. Present phonetic reading of §§ 1 –2. |
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