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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Прочитайте и переведите текст, обращая внимание на слова и выражения после текстаСтр 1 из 4Следующая ⇒
ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ЧТЕНИЯ. для студентов спец. ГК ТЕКСТЫ I СЕМЕСТРА Прочитайте и переведите текст, обращая внимание на слова и выражения после текста FROM THE HISTORY OF BUILDING Many thousands of years ago there were no houses such as people live in today. In hot countries people sometimes made their homes in the trees and used leaves to protect themselves from rain or sun. In colder countries they dwelt in caves. Later people left their caves and trees and began to build houses out of different materials such as mud, wood or stones. Later people found out that bricks made of mud and dried in the hot sunshine became almost as hard as stones. In Ancient Egypt especially, people learned to use these sun-dried mud bricks. Some of their buildings are still standing after several thousands of years. The Ancient Egyptians discovered how to cut stone for building purposes. They erected temples, palaces and huge tombs. The greatest tomb is the stone pyramid of Khufu, king of Egypt. The ancient Egyptians often erected their huge constructions to commemorate their kings or pharaohs. The ancient Greeks also understood the art of building with cut stone, and their buildings were beautiful as well as useful. They often used pillars partly for supporting the roofs and partly for decoration. Parts of these ancient buildings can still be seen today in Greece. The Romans were great bridge, harbour and road builders. In road work the Romans widely used timber piles. They also erected aqueducts, reservoirs, water tanks, etc. Some of their constructions are still used till now. It is known that the manufacture of lime is one of the oldest industries used by man. Lime is a basic building material used all over the world as today so in the ancient world. One of the Romans, Marcus Porcius Cato, gave an idea of a kiln for lime production: its shape and dimensions. Such kilns were fired with wood or coal and were extremely inefficient. There are still many remains of kilns in some places of Great Britain as well as roads and the famous Hadrian Wall, which was erected to protect Romans from the celtic tribes in the first century A.D. Britain was a province of the Roman Empire for about four centuries. There are many things today in Britain to remind the people of the Roman: towns, roads, wells and the words. In a period of 800 to 900 years the Romans developed concrete to the position Of the main structural material in the empire. It is surprising, therefore, that after the Fall of the Empire, much of the great knowledge should have disappeared so Completely. The knowledge of how to make durable concrete has been lost for Centuries, but mention was made of it in the writings of architects from time to time. Fusion of Roman and North European traditions in construction was reflected in many ways. Buildings combined the Roman arch and the steep peaked roof of Northern Europe. Roman traditions were continued in the architectural form known as Romanesque. London Bridge, finished in 1209, took thirty-three years to build. It consisted of nineteen irregular pointed arches with its piers resting on broad foundation, which was designed to withstand the Thames current. The Roman period was followed by other periods each of which produced its own type of architecture and building materials. During the last hundred years many new methods of building have been discovered. One of the recent discoveries is the usefulness of steel as a building material. Nowadays when it is necessary to have a very tall building, the frame of it is first built in steel and then the building is completed in concrete. Concrete is an artificial kind of stone, much cheaper than brick or natural stone and much stronger than they are. The Egyptians employed it in the construction of bridges, roads and town walls. There are evidences than ancient Greeks also used concrete for the building purposes. The use of concrete by the ancient Romans can be traced back as far as 500 B.C. They were the first to use it throughout the ancient Roman Empire on a pretty large scale and many structures made of concrete remain till nowadays thus proving the long life of buildings made of concrete. Of course, it was not the concrete people use today. It consisted of mud, clay and pure lime, which were used to hold together the roughly broken stone in foundations and walls. It was so-called “pseudo-concrete”. The idea of such building material might have been borrowed from the ancient Greeks as some samples of it were found in the ruins of Pompeii.
УПРАЖНЕНИЯ К ТЕКСТУ “FROM THE HISTORY OF BUILDING” I. К каждой данной паре слов вспомните русское слово с тем же корнем, что и английское:
II. Вспомните значение следующих английских слов и подберите к ним эквиваленты из правого столбца
Прочитайте и переведите текст, обращая внимание на слова и выражения после текста BUILDING MATERIALS Materials that are used for structural purposes should meet several requirements. In most cases it is important that they should be hard, durable, fire-resistant an easily fastened together. Main building materials such as rocks and artificial stones, timber and metals. We use many building materials for bearing structures. Binding materials are used for making artificial stone and for joining different planes. For the interior finish of the building we use secondary materials. TIMBER Timber is the most ancient structural material. In comparison with steel timber is lighter, cheaper, easier to work and its mechanical properties are good. On the other hand, timber has certain disadvantages. First, it burns and is therefore unsuitable for fireproof buildings. Second, it decays. Timber is a name applied to the cut material derived from trees. Timber used for building purposes is divided into two groups: softwoods and hardwoods. Hardwoods are chiefly used for decorative purposes, as for panelling, veneering in furniture, and some of them are selected for structural use because of their high strength and durability, in modern construction timber is often used for window and door frames, flooring, fences and gates, wallplates, for temporary building and unpainted internal woodwork. Timber cannot be used for either carpenters' or joiners' work immediately it has been felled because of the large amount of sap which it contains. Elimination of this moisture increases the strength, durability and resilience of timber.
УПРАЖНЕНИЯ К ТЕКСТУ “TIMBER” I. К каждой данной паре слов вспомните русское слово с тем же корнем, что и английское: Structural строительный Mechanical механический Derive получать Decorative декоративный Furniture мебель Select выбирать Tendency тенденция STONE Stone has been used as a structural material since the earliest days. Almost of all famous buildings of classic times, of the medieval and Renaissance periods and of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were erected of stone masonry. In some places stone was used because of the scarcity of timber, bin in other places stone was preferred because of its durability. The stones which are usually used for masonry work are as follows: 1) Granite is very hard, strong and durable. It is used particularly for basements base courses, columns and steps and for the entire facades. Its colour may be gray yellow pink or deep red. 2) Sandstone. Sandstone is composed of grains of sand or quarts cemented together. Sandstones form one of the most valuable materials. The durability of sandstones depends very largely upon the cementing material. Thus, there are different kinds of sandstones. Many sandstones are exceptionally hard and are selected for steps, sills etc. The excellent state of preservation of many ancient buildings built of this stone is evidence of this. But city buildings constructed of sandstone often assume a drab appearance owing to the dark colour. It is an excellent material for concrete aggregate. 3) Marble is a crystalline stone chiefly used for decorative purposes CONCRETE It is difficult to imagine modern structure without concrete. Concrete is the very building material which led to great structural innovations. The most important quality is its property to be formed into large and strong monolithic units. The basic materials for making concrete are cement, aggregate and water. Cement is the most essential material and the most important one for making concrete of high quality. Cement is made of limestone and clay. It is burnt at high temperature and ground up into powder. During the grinding a small percentage of raw gypsum is added otherwise it would set too quickly. Depending on the kind and composition of the raw materials different types of cement are obtained: Portland cement, blast furnace cement, rapid-hardening cement and many others. Concrete is made by binding together particles of sand and gravel, stone or broken brick. The binding agent used is a paste of Portland cement and water, in suitable proportions. When water is added to the cement, hydration takes place. This causes the whole mixture to set and harden, forming a solid mass. Cement starts hardening one hour after the water has been added and the process of hardening lasts for about twenty-eight days. The process is called concrete curing. The strength of concrete under favourable conditions increases with age. The strength of concrete is very rapid in the early stages, but continues more slowly for an indefinite period amounting to years. The sand, gravel (or broken stone) are termed “aggregate”; sand is known as “fine aggregate”, and gravel as “coarse aggregate”. Concrete can be made on a building site and poured into position as a wet mix, or it may be used as the materials for making prefabricated units in a plant. The characteristics of concrete depend upon the quality of the materials used, grading of the aggregates, proportioning and amount of water. The most important requirements for concrete are: it should be hard, strong, durable, fire-resistant and economical. To get the best of concrete the following considerations should be kept in mind (помнить): The water used for mixing cements, limes and plasters must be reasonably clean. Pond, river and canal water often contain different impurities and should not be used without examination. Water fit for drinking can be assumed to be free from harmful ingredients. Excess of water is detrimental to the ultimate strength of the concrete. Concrete can be divided into two classes: mass or plain concrete and reinforced concrete (ferro-concrete) where it is necessary to introduce steel. Plain or mass concrete can be used for almost all building purposes. Ferro-concrete is used in building bridges and arches, dams and dock-walls, for structures underwater, for foundations, columns and beams. The use of concrete and ferro-concrete is almost universal.
УПРАЖНЕНИЯ К ТЕКСТУ “CONCRETE” I.К каждой данной паре слов вспомните русское слово с тем же корнем, что и английское:
ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ЧТЕНИЯ. для студентов спец. ГК ТЕКСТЫ II СЕМЕСТРА
PLAN STRUCTURE OF TOWN (1 000) FORMATION OF NEW TOWNS (1 300) The conditions for the emergence, existence and further development of new towns arc manifold and connected with the emergence of industrial enterprises and other places of employment serving as the basic factor in the formation of new towns. The components contributing to the formation of new towns are: enterprises of various sectors of the mining and processing industries, heavy, light and food industries, power and transportation, higher educational institutions, scientific research institutes, public service facilities, resort and tourist enterprises and others. People employed in basic industry constitute the basic population group. As a rule, major industrial enterprises are located in non-residential areas. In the USSR, based on many years of practice, approximate sizes have been established for the territory of such enterprises, depending on their capacity and work force. An increase in production capacity does not necessarily involve a proportional increase in the basic population group but depends on the level of automation and other technological advances. Along with the basic population group, there emerges a service population group employed in the following; From the viewpoint of convenience for the public, it is advisable to set the town centre in the geometric centre of the town. But it may often be necessary to locate the town centre away from the geometric centre due to the particular conditions of the territory, location of highways and the existing building pattern. Thus, in large seaport towns the centres are often located near the water. An example of a regular plan structure is the new shopping centre in the city of Abidjan (Ivory Coast). The centre provides for a flexible composition ensuring steady development using modern engineering infrastructure and the construction of high-rise buildings with 11-14 or more stories. The western sites are used for administrative buildings, the eastern — for the shopping; located to the north of the centre are cultural and sports facilities. The separation of automotive and pedestrian traffic is well planned. The central axis highway connects the centre to all the districts of the city. The population of the central district located on the Banko plateau is more than 50, 000. STRUCTURE OF RESIDENTIAL AREA (1 800) The residential area of a town is mainly used for the construction of housing complexes with cultural and service facilities. The residential area is divided into planning areas (for large cities), residential districts, residential neighbourhoods or communities and house groups. House group is the basic element of a housing complex. It consists of several residential buildings with a day nursery and kindergarten. As a rule, the site is landscaped for use by the people living there. Residential community is a complex of house groups. It includes residential buildings and/cultural and service facilities for day by day living located not more than 300-500 m from the residential buildings. The unifying clement of a community is the school and the public and shopping centre. The territory of a residential community is bounded by residential streets and is usually located outside transportation highways. Residential district is a larger housing complex. It includes several residential communities mutually linked by a system of service facilities that are used periodically and located within walking distance of 1, 000-1, 200 m. Local roads for serving the population may pass through the residential district. Depending on natural climatic conditions, national traditions and life styles, the types of residential and public buildings, the 'form and kinds of public service facilities, the plan structure of residential complexes and services may achieve considerable diversity. It is common practice in Russia to plan the network of cultural and service facilities in what is described as a stepped system: Cafeterias, cafes, nurseries and kindergartens, schools, shops, service facilities, and cultural and educational institutions catering to the daily needs of the population are located in a residential community and are linked with the houses in the community by pedestrian streets. Cinemas, clubs, libraries, restaurants, sports facilities, etc. which are attended periodically by the population, are located in public centres of a residential district within walking distance from a housing zone. MODERN CITY PLANNING (1 900) Modern city planning is characterized by the rapid urban growth and the tendency for several towns to be knitted together into large agglomerations with a corresponding increase in population and territory. This results in the best farm lands being used by the expanding urban territory and in the despoliation of the natural landscape and forests, the pollution of water areas and the atmosphere. The continued growth of cities with their solid masses of masonry structures and high building density results in insufficient insolation and greenery and hence a decline in the urban microclimate. Urban growth increases average travel time. and mobility of people, there is a sharp increase In the intensity of road haulage and the number of transportation facilities. On roads and streets, as is known, the number of vehicles increases several times faster -than the road network causing supersaturation by transportation of the street network and traffic congestion which is already to be observed in many large cities of the United States and other capitalist countries. ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ЧТЕНИЯ. для студентов спец. ГК ТЕКСТЫ I СЕМЕСТРА Прочитайте и переведите текст, обращая внимание на слова и выражения после текста |
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