Discuss the problem described in the text.

Рефератний переклад

Основним видом технічного перекладу є повний письмовий переклад. Всі інші види технічного перекладу є його похідними, скороченими варіантами. Ці види перекладу використовуються в процесі обміну науково-технічною інформацією для обробки матеріалу, які не підлягають негайному практичному використанню, але мають певну практичну і потенційну цінність для інформування спеціалістів, які працюють у сфері науки і техніки, робітників патентної служби, які вирушають правові питання, а також для цілей накопичення і систематизації научно-технічної інформації, що находить з-за кордону.

Одним з таких скорочених варіантів повного письмового перекладу є рефератний переклад.

Назва «рефератний переклад» походить від слова «реферат». Реферат – це короткий виклад змісту будь–якого питання. Однак засоби такого викладу змісту питання можуть бути різними. В області технічного перекладу виділились три самостійних види технічного перекладу:

1) реферативний переклад

2) переклад типу «експрес-інформація»

3) сигнальний переклад головних пунктів формули винаходу (переклад патентних рефератів)

Реферативний переклад – це повний письмовий переклад заздалегідь відібраних частин оригіналу, які складають зв’язний текст.

Як правило, реферативний переклад повинен бути значно коротшим ніж оригінал (в 10-15 разів і більше), так як в процесі рефератного перекладу потрібен висновок всієї зайвої інформації, кількість якої перш за все залежить від характеру оригіналу.

Під характером оригіналу розуміють важливість і доступність викладеного матеріалу, а також спосіб викладу, наприклад багатослівність, лаконічність до повторень, відступів і екскурсів в суміжні області.

Робота над реферативним перекладом складається з наступних етапів:

1) Попереднє знайомство з оригіналом, переклад спеціальної літератури для ознайомлення з даною областю і її термінологією, уважне читання всього тексту.

2) Розмітка тексту за допомогою квадратних дужок для виключення його другорядних частин і повторень (виключені частини тексту беруться в дужки).

3) Читання залишених місць і виключення можливих диспропорцій і незв’язності.

4) Повний письмовий переклад частини оригіналу, яка залишилась за дужками і повинна являти собою зв’язний текст, побудований за тим же логічним планом, що й оригінал.

Анотаційний переклад

Анотаційний переклад – це вид технічного перекладу, який полягає в складанні анотації оригіналу на іншій мові.

Анотація спеціальної статті чи книги – коротка характеристика оригіналу, яка викладає його зміст, у вигляді переліку основних питань і іноді дає критичну оцінку.

З цього визначення випливає, що така анотація повинна дати читачеві уяви про характер оригіналу (наукова стаття, технічний опис, науково-популярна книга і т.д.), про його будову ( які питання і в якій послідовності розглядаються, до яких висновків приходить автор і т. д.), про призначення оригіналу (на кого розрахований і т. д.), а також про об’єм оригіналу, якість викладу, актуальність, обґрунтованість висновків і про інші подібні моменти, характеризуючи матеріал.

Головна відмінність анотації статті чи книги – це характеристика оригіналу.

Цей різновид анотаційного перекладу здійснюється в послідовності, яка логічно випливає з його визначення: спочатку перекладач читає книгу чи статтю, потім складає її план (план є способом аналізу і може бути формальним або органічним), після чого з метою характеристики оригіналу формулює його основні питання чи іншим подібним засобом описує будову і зміст оригіналу. Стосовно критичної оцінки, то її може і не бути, якщо перекладач не бачить особливої потреби у подібній оцінці.

Об’єм анотаційного перекладу, порівняно з оригіналом, визначається в залежності від конкретних умов, однак анотації об’єм більшого ніж 500 друкованих знаків практично не робляться.

Text 1

CIVIL ENGINEERING

The part played by civil engineers in pioneering work and in developing wide areas of the world has been and continues to be enormous.

Civil engineering was not distinguished from other branches of engineering until 200 years ago. This term was first used to distinguish the work of the engineer with a

non-military purpose from military engineering. Most early engineers were engaged in the construction of fortifications and were responsible for building the roads and bridges required for the movement of troops and supplies.

The Roman armies of occupation in Europe had brilliant engineers. After the collapse of the Roman Empire there was little progress in communications. It was only with the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the steam engine and the realization of the potentialities in the use of iron that it revived. Roads, canals, railways, ports, harbours and bridges were then built by engineers who called themselves “civil” in contrast to military engineers. This may have emphasized the value of their work to the community.

Today, the scope of civil engineering has become very broad. It is subdivided into such as construction (all kinds of buildings), highway and railway engineering, hydraulic engineering (canals, dams, drainage and irrigation system) and municipal engineering (city planning, traffic regulation, water supply, and sewerage). Civil engineering is an extremely broad professional field. It must make use of many different branches of knowledge, including mathematics, theory of structures, hydrology soil mechanics, surveying, hydrology, geology, economics and most recently a knowledge of computers. Civil engineering problems involve the physical, mathematical, earth, social, communications, and engineering sciences. Civil engineering projects involve many other professional areas, including law, public health, economics, management, finance, and other branches of engineering. The scope and complexity of the field, and its degree of involvement with other fields, has increased rapidly with the development of modern science and technology and the growth of population and national economics. Taken as a whole, modern civil engineering constitutes a vital element of national industry which involves large numbers of people of various special interests and occupations.

VOCABULARY NOTES

1. pioneering work – труд першевідкривача

2. civil engineering – цівільне будівництво

3. military engineering – військово-будівельна справа

4. to be engaged in smith – займатися чим небудь

5. to be responsible (for smth.) – відповідати

6. degree of involvement (with other fields) – ступень зв’язку

7. in contrast to – на відміну від

8. to make use of smth. – користуватись чим- небудь.

9. domestic dwelling – житловий будинок

10. multistory flats – багатоквартирний будинок

11. with (in) reference to – відносно

12. water supply – водопостачання

13. hydroelectric schemes – гідроелектричні проекти

14. precast (prefabricated) concrete – збірний бетон

15. reinforced concrete – залізобетон

16. prestressed concrete – попередньо напружений бетон

17. a great deal of – багато

18. hard and fast (dividing line) – непорушна

EXERCISES

1. Find in the text English equivalents of the following word – combinations:

На користь і для зручності людини, прекрасні інженери, винаходження парового двигуна, важливість їхньої роботи для суспільства, різні галузі знань, теорія конструкції, велика кількість, люди різних зацікавлень і занять, зведення і ремонт будинків, житловий будинок, збірний залізобетон, почесна професія.

2. Combine the word “domestic” with the proper English word to form the equivalents of the following Ukrainian word – combinations:

Житловий будинок goods

Домашні справи gas

Домашні тварини cares

Внутрішні справи affairs

Домоведення animals

Вітчизняні товари dwelling

Комунальній газ science

3. Translate into English using words and expressions from the text:

1. Цивільне будівництво охоплює спеціальності різного профілю. 2. В стародавні часи цивільне будівництво не відокремлювалось від інших інженерних галузей. 3. В усіх країнах професія будівельника дуже важлива і почесна. 4. Цивільне будівництво займається зведенням житлових будинків і промислових будівель. 5. Планування і забудова міст завжди відображувала соціальний устрій, економічні, інженерно-технічні та художні можливості суспільства.

4 . Answer the following questions on the text: 1. What is civil engineering?

2. When was the term, “civil engineering” used first? 3. What were most early engineers engaged in? 4. What branches is civil engineering subdivided into? 5. What branches of knowledge must civil engineering make use of? 6. What sciences is it connected with? 7. What is the difference between “construction” and “building”? 8. What is the characteristic feature of the Ukrainian civil engineering?

Text 2

URBANIZATION AND ECOLOGY

Every year more and more people are moving to urban places from rural parts of the country. The proportion of urban dwellers is increasing constantly. The urbanization process gives birth to a number of problems. Urban ecology is one of them.

Ecology is the study of the relationships between living things and the environment. Urban ecology, deals with the relationship between man and his most common home, the urban environment.

Unlike a lake or a forest, the urban environment is largely man-made. Man therefore takes a more prominent position in the development of the environment.

Not long ago town had a local impact on nature. Today, in the context of the scientific and technological progress, the influence of cities and urbanized areas is spreading over vast territories to the planet as a whole.

And the thing is not only that human activity “ousts” nature, creating an artificial environment that it opposes, impoverishes huge natural landscape. It (human activity) turns the biosphere into a global “translator” of the consequences of urbanization. In the past the natural and man-made environment was regarded by specialist primarily as an object of man’s actions, the instrument and material of his activity. Today, the changes in the environment brought about man’s activity are dangerous to the environment and man himself. The population outflow from rural areas and industrial activity leads to the destruction of natural wealth both in town and country. Therefore, nature conservation, cultivation of rural and town landscapes and measures may help man preserve ecological balance in a given territory. That’s why the tasks of “ecologization” of the industrial production and urbanized landscapes should be accomplished simultaneously.

VOCABULARY NOTES

1. environment – середовище

2. prominent – видатний

3. impact – вплив

4. influence – вплив

5. to oust – вигоняти

6. consequence – наслідок

7. simultaneously – одночасно

EXERCISES

1. Read the text and answer the following questions:

1. Is the proportion of urban dwellers increasing or decreasing? 2. What does urban ecology deal with? 3. What is the influence of the scientific-technological progress on ecology? 4. Are industrial activities of man dangerous to the environment? 5. What must be the measures connected with nature conservation? 6. What examples of ecological disasters-can you describe?

Text 3

TYPES OF BUILDINGS

Types of buildings upon social formations may be classified according to the community. The types of buildings may be domestic, educational, office, industrial, recreational, etc.

The type and the function of a building govern its design, building materials and techniques. But the common and necessary conditions are: (1) its suitability to use by human beings in general and its adaptability to particular human activities (2) the stability and permanence of its construction.

The apartment houses are mostly built to suit urban conditions. Group housing provides home for many families and is at public and private. The techniques of construction or the methods by which structures are formed from particular materials are influenced not only by the availability and character of materials but also by the total technological development of society.

The evolution of techniques is conditioned by two factors: one is economic - the search for a maximum of stability and durability with a minimum of materials, labour and time; the other is expressive - the desire to produce meaningful form. Techniques evolve rapidly when economic requirements suggest new expressive forms or when the conception of new forms demands new procedures.

Large housing programs have tended to stimulate technological change in the building industry. Craft operations at the building site are being replaced by mechanized operations at the factory and houses are increasingly becoming assemblages of factory-made elements. Windows and doors, once made and fitted by carpenters at the site now arrive from a factory fitted and finished with hardware and glass, ready to be set in place. Modular design (i. e. design in which the elements are dimensioned in combinations of a fixed unit) has led to standardization of elements, interchangeability of parts and increased possibilities for mass production, with resultant economies. A wide variety of mass-produced elements from which substantial portions of the house can be assembled are now available. Examples are kitchen cabinets and mechanical equipment and window and door units. Entire apartment assemblages are available and are being used to an increasing extent. These techniques aim at a higher output of better structures at lower cost.

The high degree of mechanization and standardization is successfully achieved by reinforced concrete blocks and units. Reinforced concrete homes are produced by a variety of construction methods. Various methods of constructing reinforced concrete houses involve extensive use of large sections manufactured in heavily mechanized factories and erected at the site.

The built-in space of an apartment should be carefully thought of as well. The contemporary trend is expressed by joining the living and dining areas into a single space or by relating the kitchen and dining areas. It has become increasingly important as rooms that have become smaller should appear as spacious as possible. Therefore, there is a considerable trend toward built-in furniture. Rooms should be both efficient and visually satisfying. The extent of built-in cabinets must be determined. Drawers and shelves can often be concealed behind walls, freeing valuable floor space.

The windows and doors must look well from the interior as well as from the exterior. Satisfactory functioning is also involved; windows must be sized and located for the best possible lighting and ventilation; as for electricity it should be mentioned that the electric load of most houses has increased enormously as standards of lighting rose and mechanical and household equipment multiplied. Great technological advances have been made in plumbing. Much progress has been made with respect to standardization and production of the elements of kitchen equipment.

EXERCISES

1. Find the Ukrainian equivalents of the following English terms.

1. building materials технічний прогрес

2. techniques сучасний

3. residential construction забезпечувати

4. technological changes теплоізоляція

5. mechanized operations методи будівництва

6. site залізобетонні блоки

7. reinforced concrete blocks житлове будівництво

8. construction methods методи

9. thermal insulation будівельні матеріали

10. to provide механізовані операції

11. contemporary будівельний майданчик

12. technological advances зміни в технологічному процесі

Text 4

EXERCISES

1. Find the Ukrainian equivalents of the following English terms

1. standard of living керівничий апарат

2. housing будівельна промисловість

3. managerial staff промислове будівництво

4. prefabricated structures житлове будівництво

5. present-day design життєвий рівень

6. technological advance збірні конструкції

7. site planning сучасне проектування

8. heating system система опалювання

9. hot-water supply гаряче водопостачання

10. washing machines пральні машини

11. building industry переваги

12. industrial construction планування робіт на будівельному майданчику

13. storage facilities складські приміщення

14. advantages технічний прогрес

Text 5

EXERCISES

1. Read and translate the text.

2. Make a detailed plan of the text.

3. State the main idea of the text and make the annotation.

Text 6

EXERCISES

1. Find the Ukrainian equivalents of the following English terms.

1. high rate of strength розчин

2. resistance to гіпс

3. high-alumina cement заповнювач

4. crushed stone вміст вологи

5. mortar навантаження на стиск

6. aggregate цемент з високим вмістом глинозему

7. fine aggregate висока міцність

8. workability щебінь

9. compressive load міцність на

10. gypsum оброблюваність

11. moisture content дрібний заповнювач

12. masonry кам’яна (цегляна) кладка

2. Put the following sentences into groups according to three topics (a, b, c).

A. The choice of materials for any work of construction.

B. The properties of high alumina cement.

C. The composition of concrete.

1. Another important class of cement is high alumina cement. 2. Such a material may be considered an artificial conglomerate of crushed stone or gravel with a mortar. 3. The civil engineer must consider many factors when selecting the material for construction. 4. This kind of cement is very resistant to chemical attack. 5. The principal object in proportioning concrete is the production of a durable material of adequate strength and water tightness. 6. The factors that condition the selection of materials for construction include availability, cost and physical properties. 7. This material has an extremely high rate of strength increase. 8. Timber, steel and concrete vary over considerable ranges in the properties desired by the engineer and the latter should take them into consideration in selecting the materials. 9. The most accurate method of measuring proportions for concrete is to weigh the required quantities of each material.

Choose the correct answers.

1. What influences the choice of building materials?

a) The choice of building materials is governed by the type and the function of a building. b) Availability, cost and physical properties are the main considerations for an engineer in selecting materials for construction. c) The techniques and methods of construction are the main factors influencing the choice of building materials.

2. What are lime, gypsum and cement most widely used for?

a) These three materials are not widely used for the purpose of binding together masonry units. b) They are used as components to produce concrete. c) With the large-scale construction, lime, gypsum and cement may be considered to be the most important binding materials.

Text 7

VOCABULARY NOTES

1) elusive property –ухильна властивість

2) degree of durability – ступень міцності

3) moisture content – зміст вологи

4) eaves – карнизи

5) cornice – карниз

6) to simplify – спрощувати

7) deterioration – погіршення

8) previous – попередній

9) behavior – поведінка

10) to a great extent – значною мірою

11) appraisal –оцінка

12) hood mould – частина каналізаційного люка

13) throating – жолобок

EXERCISES

1) Find the English equivalents to the following word combinations:

потрібна міцність; залежати від умов; швидка зміна температури; для зовнішнього застосування; проект будівлі; у цілому; братии до уваги; вибір матеріалу; наукове випробування.

2) Answer the following questions:

1) What does the durability of any material depend upon?

2) What does external weathering and moisture content result in?

3) What have many failures resulted from?

4) What technique is more reliable?

5) What does the durability of a walling material depend upon?

6) How may the effects of frost be rendered?

7) What technique should be used when the problem of reliance is concerned?

Text 8

FOOTINGS AND FOUNDATIONS

The more common types of foundation structure are: isolated spread footings (one to each column); combined footings (one to two columns); and mat, or raft, foundations (all columns resting upon a heavy slab).

These forms may sometimes rest directly on the bearing soil or they may rest on the heads of piling. Sometimes the columns are set on large cylinders of plain concrete, from 4or 8 ft. in diameter and extend to rock or other hard stratum at depth. This form is called “pier” or “caisson” foundation.

Spread footings may be used under either walls or columns and may be of timber, steel, plain masonry, or reinforced concrete.

The problem is to enlarge the base sufficiently to secure bearing area to carry loads.

Wall Footings – the footings in this case act as a cantilever beam with the load acting upward and the support at the middle. It is commonly assumed that the bearing is uniformly distributed over the bearing area, although the bearing may be somewhat greater at the middle that at the edges.

Continuous footings under columns – when footing are built continuously under columns, the footing takes a beam carrying concentrated loads at column points acting downwards and distributed load acting upward. The distribution of the pressure cannot be calculated directly, but the problem is to proportion the width of the footing stab so that the slab as a continuous beam under a distributed load upward will have upward reactions at column points not less than the column loadings.

Floating foundations is a term applied to practically monolithic footings built under an entire structure which have been used widely for construction on soils of more or less plastic nature. Floating foundations have been constructed as slabs or mats, a combination of beams and slabs, inverted barrel arches and slabs, and inverted groined arches.

The obvious advantage of floating foundations is that if uneven settlement occurs, serious injury to the structure does not result.

Pile foundations are used in the areas where the other kinds of foundation cannot be constructed. By driving bearing piles, the support of structure is transferred in an irregular manner to the earth stratum. The proportions of the load carried down by the piles and by the intervening soil depend on the nature of the soil – the stiffer the soil, the greater proportion is carried thereby.

Timber piles. - Timber piles have been used almost exclusively in the past in foundation work; but with the growing scarcity of timber, and the development of concrete, reinforced concrete piles are coming to be extensively used.

Pile driving. – Pile may be driven by means of a pile driver or a water jet. Pile drivers may be classed as drop hammers and steam hammers.

The steam pile driver has many advantages over the drop hammer. Drop hammers operate at about 5 or 6 blows per minute, while steam hammers strike about 60blows per minute for a single-acting and 120 per minute for a double-acting. After piles are driven, they are sawed off at a given elevation, and the foundation footings are placed directly thereon, the heads of the piles projecting into the concrete from 6 to 12 in.

The engineer in charge of pile driving should carefully inspect the piles previous to driving so that they meet the specifications and, after they are driven, to discover injured piles.

Some other kinds of foundation work. – Pier foundations are used where a stratum of high supporting capacity is under soil strata.

Cofferdams are enclosures constructed to exclude water from the area of operation during construction.

Caissons – the word “caisson” is derived from the French word meaning “case”.

As applied to engineering construction, a caisson may be defined as a large watertight box used to exclude water or other fluid and semi fluid materials during excavating of foundations and the construction of substructures and ultimately becoming an integral part of the structure. This box or caisson, may be “open”, without a bottom, the water being allowed to rise naturally inside; or may have a bottom and be carried down by building the masonry pier inside. If the box is inverted, the water may be excluded by air pressure, and the box becomes a pneumatic caisson consists of a box with cross walls. Sometimes the caisson is constructed of reinforced concrete or a steel cylinder.

EXERCISES

1. Read and translate the text.

2. Make a detailed plan of the text.

3. State the main idea of the text, and make an essay.

Text 9

WALLS

Wall are constructed to enclose areas and to support the weight of floors, roofs, earth or water. They are classified as follows:

a) walls to resist vertical pressures,

b) walls to resist oblique thrusts.

The first section of heading includes all house walls, solid or hollow, supporting single floors, and couple close raftered roofs. The second section includes all walls carrying the trusses of framed roofs. Inside walls serve as partitions or divisions for several rooms inside the dwelling. Inside walls may or may not support other parts of the structure.

An outside wall rests directly on the foundation wall forming a bearing unit for the upper floors and the roof and an enclosure for inner construction. Outside walls are made of wood, steel (for retaining walls), brick, stone, concrete blocks or concrete, or combination of two or three of the foregoing materials, cane and adobe.

Classification of Stone Walling. – This is classified as follows:

1) Rubble.

2) Block-in-Course.

3) Ashlars.

Rubble walls are those built of thinly-bedded stone, generally under 9 inches in depth, of irregular shapes as in common or random rubble, or squared as in coursed rubble.

Block-in-Course is composed of squared stones usually larger than coursed rubble, and under 12 inches in depth.

Ashlars is the stone 12 to 18 inches deep, dressed with a scrabbling hammer, or sawn to blocks of given dimensions and carefully worked to obtain fine joints. The length of soft stone for resisting pressure should not exceed three times its depth; the length in harder stones, four to five times its depth; the breadth, from one-and-a-half to twice its depth and breadth in harder stones, three times its depth.

Reinforced Brickwork – It is brickwork which has been strengthened by the introduction of steel or wrought iron in the form of either flat or rod bars, woven wire or expanded metal. Such brickwork is capable of resisting tensile and shear stresses, in addition to compressive stress. Reinforcement of brickwork also improves the longitudinal bond of thick walls. The brick walls are reinforced at every third course with steel meshed strips.

Cavity Walls – This type of construction is now very common and is generally preferred to solid wall construction for many types of building, especial houses.

A cavity wall is usually an external wall. It consists of two separate walls of brickwork, having a cavity between, and connected together by metal ties. This double wall is generally 11-in. thick, consisting of 4.5 in. inner and outer leaves and 2-in. cavity. Such a wall is adequate for a two-storied building of the domestic type. The chief merits of cavity walls are:

1) they prevent rain from penetrating to the internal face,

2) they have a high insulating value,

3) they are economical.

VOCABULARY NOTES

1) dwelling – житловий будинок

2) rubble walls – бутові стіни

3) brickwork – цегельна кладка

4) cavity wall – проміжна стіна

5) dimension – величина

6) to strengthen – підсилювати

7) insulating value – ізоляційна цінність

8) reinforcement – підкріплення; арматура

EXERCISES

1) Find the English equivalents to the following word combinations:

огороджувати; балка; зовнішні стіни; фундаментальна стіна; металеві затиски ; тривалий зв’язок; неправильна форма; перевага; запобігати дощу; арматура.

2) Answer the questions:

1) Why are walls constructed?

2) What kinds of walls do you know?

3) Where does an outside wall rest?

4) What materials are rubble walls built of?

5) What is ashlars and what is its depth?

6) What materials strengthen reinforced brickwork?

7) What does cavity wall consist of?

8) What is the merit of cavity wall?

3) Translate into English:

1) Стіни використовуються для огородження територій та підтримки ваги поверхів, шиферу, землі чи води.

2) Зовнішні стіни розташовані на фундаментальній стіні, формуючи несущий елемент для верхніх поверхів та шиферу та огородження для всієї внутрішньої конструкції.

3) Бутові стіни зроблені з тонкого-каміня, що знаходиться на глибині 9 дюймів.

4) Блочні стіни вироблені з квадратних каменів, що звичайно більше ніж бутові та знаходяться на глибині 12 дюймів.

5) Проміжна стіна підходить для двохповерхової будівлі домашнього типу.

6) Проміжна стіна складається з двох окремих стін, між якими є прохід та які пов’язені металевими затисками

Text 10

WALL UNITS

Wall-slabs – Wall-slabs are mostly used for the construction of partitions or walls which carry no load but serve only the purpose of enclosing space. In some cases, precast wall units are also used to form load-carrying walls. In the construction of external walls for houses and multi-storied flats the tendency has been towards a steady increase in the size and weights of the precast units. Whole walls with windows and door incorporated are precast as single units. It appears that the optimum size and shape of precast units for wall construction is a slab of such size as can be safely transported from a permanent factory to the building sites. It is advantage if the shape of the units is similar all walls and floors. This slab structure possesses properties which are generally desirable in house construction: flat walls and ceilings without the usual breaks in the surfaces due to beams and columns; low weight, and good heat and sound insulation; small quantities of mortar, and simple erection; short time and low costs of construction.

Sections Assembled from Block. – like floor-slabs, wall sections are frequently assembled from precast hollow blocks of light-weight concrete.

Interlocking Blocks – a type of walling quickly and easily erected makes use of wall-blocks consisting of slabs with enlargements at both ends over half the weight of the unit. These enlargements have centre holes. The weight of each block is designed so that two men can carry it quite easily.

To erect the wall, strip foundations or foundation blocks are prepared in-situ, with reinforcing rods projecting vertically at centers equal to the spacing of the holes. The blocks are set in mortal so that the holes register and form hollow cylinder. As soon as the first live rows are laid, reinforcing bar is placed in each hole overlapping the vertical bar of the foundation and leaving lap for the next lift. All holes are now grouted in carefully, and the next lift is erected by repeating the same process. In lintels over doors and windows the nominal reinforcement of the block has to be replaced by a working reinforcement in accordance with the load to be carried. Precast eaves may be shaped to the architect’s requirements. They have similar 5-in. holes to provide a solid anchorage into the wall piers.

With labour reasonably well organized, such a house of 22 ft. by 15 ft. high, may easily be erected in two days after the foundations are ready, counting one day the erection of walls and another day for the precast roof.

Tilt-up Construction – Tilt-up walls are cast on the ground in one or more sections, then lifted upright and attached to each other. Sometimes these panels are made with glass or other insulating material inside. In the structure, the panels may be connected to the floor, to partitions, to columns, and to each other by welding steel details together, by bolting, by mortaring, or by any other suitable and possible means. Precast wall panels can also be used in a large multistory structure. When made with an insulating material in the middle, they are often called “sandwich” walls.

Sandwich Construction – one of the principal properties required for external wall is a satisfactory value of thermal insulation. Prefabrication offers good possibilities of improving the thermal insulation properties of concrete walls by the inclusion of layers of high-grade insulating materials. The precast units are made of storey-height and of the full length of each house. Prefabricated near the site, they consist of an inner and outer facing of reinforced concrete and a core of cellular-glass insulating blocks. These walls have an over-all coefficient of heat transmission of 0.20. Inner and outer facings tied together with expanded metal shear-ties, and edges of the panels are tongued and grooved, for water-tightness. Inserts for anchoring panels to structural steel framing are welded to the inside wire mesh, which holds them in proper position during the casting operation.

Retaining Walls – A retaining wall, usually built of stone, plain concrete, or reinforced concrete, is a wall built to sustain the lateral pressure of the earth or other material possessing more or less frictional stability. Such walls depend for their stability either on their own weight or on their own weight and additional weight of the laterally supported material. Retaining walls are most commonly used for lateral supports of earth.

EXERCISES

1) Read and translate the text.

2) Make a detailed plan of the text.

3) State the main idea of the text and make the annotation.

Text 11

PARTITIONS

Partitions are walls which are used to divide building into rooms, corridors and cubicles. They also often act as deep trusses to support the joists of floors, purling and ceiling joists of roofs, etc. Partitions may be classified under following: timber, clay and terra-cotta, concrete, sawdust concrete, plaster, wood-wool cement, asbestos-cement, and metal.

Timber Partitions. – they consist of vertical members called studs, which are secured to two horizontal lengths of timber, the upper being the head and the lower, the sill. One or booth may be either lathed and plastered or covered with boarding, plywood sheets, wall boards, etc.

This class of partition is in common use. Because of its lightness, it is usefully employed when there is no supporting wall below. A disadvantage is its deficient fire-resisting quality.

Clay and Terra-Cotta Brick and Block Partitions – the commonest type of clay partition is the ordinary solid brick.

Wall of 4 ½ in. or more in thickness. Such walls are relatively strong and fire-resisting, but their weight precludes their use for partitions on upper floors unless provision in the form of girders or lower wall is made for their support. Holly clay units, either bricks or blocks, are comparatively light and yet are sufficiently strong for the construction of non-load bearing partition. In general, the blocks are built in cement mortar and are bonded in the usual way with staggered vertical joints. The following are the merits of this blocks: satisfactory mechanical strength, lightness in weight, good head and sound insulation, fireproof, non-shrinkage and vermin proof.

Precast Concrete Block Partition – both solid and hollow blocks are made. There are three of precast concrete blocks, namely:

1) Concrete blocks used for load bearing walls and made of dense aggregate such as broken stone, heavy blast furnace slag and crushed bricks.

2) Concrete blocks used for load bearing wall and made of lighter aggregates including foamed slag, clinker, expanded state and pumice.

3) Concrete blocks used for load bearing partitions and made of aggregates similar to those for type 2.

Sawdust Concrete Blocks Partitions – Sawdust concrete (so called because it is a mixture of cement and sawdust) is used in the production of building and partition blocks. They are composed of cement, fine aggregate and chemically treated sawdust. They are light in weight and have satisfactory heat insulation and fire-resisting values.

Plaster Slab Partitions – these are made of calcium sulphate. This is mixed with water, and sand may be added to the mix. The slabs are made by casting the material in wood or metal moulds. They set quickly. In order to decrease their weight many thicker slabs are cellular. The slabs are bedded and jointed in lime mortar; plaster of Paris may be added.

Plaster boarded Partitions – plasterboard consists of gypsum plaster compressed between two sheets of stout paper. The boards are made in various sizes and are used chiefly for forming ceilings and covering internal partitions.

Wood-Wool Cement Partitions – this material consists of a mixture of wood-wool (wood shavings) and Portland cement: gypsum may be added. Long shavings from 1/8 to 1/4 in.

Wide boards are coated with liquid cement consolidated into slabs by means of a machine press and then stored to mature. These slabs are very light they have good heat and sound insulating qualities, are fire-resistant, can be easily fixed and sawn and provide a good key for the plaster which is applied to the surface after fixing

Asbestos-Cement Partitions – they consist of two flat sheets of asbestos-cement, each approximately 5/12 in. thick, attached to an inner corrugated sheet (1/5 in thick) of similar material. The sheets are jointed in cement mortar and painted or distempered as required. This forms a light, durable, fire-resisting and wall insulated partition.

Metal Partitions – Mild steel and bronze are two of several metals which are used in the manufacture of partitions. These may be designer to consist of a series of panels. The Panels vary from l 1/2 in. Thick.

Steel or 1/8 to 1/4 in. thick bronze. Partitions may also be constructed of bronze or nickel alloys extruded over wood panels or cores.

VOCABULARY NOTES

1) Partition – перекриття

2) Fire-resistant quality – вогнестійка якість

3) sawdust – тирса

4) precast concrete – збірний бетон

5) plaster of Paris – гіпс

6) clay and terra-cotta brick and block partitions – глиняні, теракотоцегельні та блочні перекриття

7) Precast concrete block partitions – блочні перекриття зі збірного бетону

8) sawdust concrete blocks partitions – блочні перекриття з тирсового бетону

9) plaster boarded partitions – штукатурно – плиточні перекриття

10) mortar – розчин

11) expanded state - розширенні плити.

12) moulds - багети.

13) to mature –довести до зрілості

EXERCISES

1) Find the English equivalents to the following word combinations:

Недолік; тверда цегла; бетоні блоки; розширені плити; легкість; наповнювач; фанера; рідкий цемент; несучі стіни; досить міцний; механічна міцність.

2) Find the Ukrainian equivalents of the following word – combinations, given below:

1) panels відбирати

2) thickness складатись

3) plaster штукатурка

4) boarded partitions дерево

5) bronze опорна стіна

6) to consist of бронза

7) wood покриття

8) supporting wall товщина

9) to cast панелі

10) covering дощаті перекриття

3) Answer the questions:

1) What are partitions?

2) What kinds of partitions are known to you?

3) What it the advantage and disadvantage of timber partitions?

4) What’s the сcommonest type of clay partitions?

5) What’s the sickness of solid brick walls?

6) How many types of precast concrete do you know and what are they?

7) Where’s sawdust concrete used?

8) How are the slabs made?

9) What do plaster boarded partitions consist of?

10) What metals are used in the manufacture of metal partitions?

11) What are panels and what’s their size?

4) Translate into English:

1) Перекриттями називаються стіни, що розподіляють будинок на кімнати, коридори та кабінеті.

2) Через свою легкість дерев’яні перекриття використовуються, коли знизу нема опорної стіни.

3) Найбільш поширений тин глиняного перекриття – це звичайна стіна з твердою цегли, що складає 4 1/2 дюйма в товщину.

4) Тирсовій бетон використовується для будування будівлі та блочних перекриттів.

5) Плити виготовляються шляхом відбору матеріалу для дерев’яних або металевих багетів.

6) Вошки можуть бути різних розмірів та використовуються для виготовлення стель та покриття внутрішніх перекриттів.

Text 12

VOCABULARY NOTES

1) mankind - людство

2) ancient inhabitants – стародавні мешканці

3) withstand – протистояти

4) a cantilever beam – крива балка

5) assumption – припущення

6) equation - рівняння

7) skyscraper - хмарочос

8) to held responsibility – нести відповідальність

9) to testify - свідчити

EXERCISES

1) Find the English equivalents to the following word combinations:

велика кількість туристів; архітектурні споруди; руйнівний ефект; опір матеріалів; раціональні принципи; висячий міст; міцність; дивовижно.

2)Answer the questions:

1) What has mankind designed and erected from the beginning of recorded time?

2) What structures of ancient times do you know?

3) What principles did Galileo apply?

4) What technological developments of the XX ^th century can you name?

5) What requests arise every day?

6) What must the designer be aware of?

3) Complete the sentences in yow own words:

1) In ancient times mankind……

2) Galileo was one who…….

3) One of the assumptions that Galileo made ……

4) The great technological developments of modern time were….

5) The requests for ………… arise every day

4)Translate into English:

1) Єгипетські піраміди все ще існують сьогодні та свідчать про великі інженерські вміння давніх жителів долини Нілу.

2) Існує багато прикладів інженерних та архітектурних споруд давніх часів, що більш менш успішно протистояли руйнівному ефекту часів на протязі століть.

3) Галілей був першим, хто намагався розробити дизайн більш раціональної основи.

4) Проте, головний метод аналізу, який він виконував, продовжив гарний початок в розвитку науки, що зараз називаються опором матеріалів, або механікою

5) Великими технологічними досягненнями ХХ століття були хмарочоси, висячі мости, автомобілі, літаки та інші.

Text 13

VOCABULARY NOTES

1) load – навантаження

2) to ensure safety –гарантувати безпеку

3) ultimate – головний

4) reinforced concrete frame – залізобетонна рама

5) to come collapse – статус причиною падіння

6) simultaneously – одночасно

7) Hooke’s law – Закон Гука

8) internal forces – внутрішні сили

9) to multiply the working load - помножити робоче навантаження

10) stress – напруга

11) strain – на тяжіння

EXERCISES

1) Find the English equivalents to the following word combinations:

чинили опір; напруга, що виробляють матеріали; збільшувати; з іншого боку; фактор безпеки; неефективний; навантаження , що не є цінним; міра безпеки; інженерні матеріали;

2) Answer the questions:

1) How are the structural members designed?

2) What is the reason for choosing the working stresses?

3) Why, in the case of a reinforced concrete frame the load might be greater then of each part of the building?

4) What’s the aim of the ultimate – load method of a structure?

5) What’s the true measure of the safety of a structure?

6) What are the sides of the members based on?

3) Translate into English :

1) В багатьох простих спорудах напруга, що виробляють матеріали, звеличується в прямих пропорціях до навантаження.

2) Існує багато випадків, в яких напруга не звеличується в прямих пропорціях до навантаження.

3) Метою основного вантажного методу дизайну є виробити «збалансований» дизайн так, щоб всі елементи впали одночасно.

4) Часто, припущення базуються на знаннях розподілу на тяжіння.

5) Закон Гука звучить: «Сила напруги пропорційна силі натяжіння ! »

Text 14

VOCABULARY NOTES

1) arrangement – розташування

2) outset – початок

3) essential condition - необхідна умова

4) fulfillment – виконання

5) to meet the needs – задовольнити потреби

6) authority – повноваження, авторитет

7) particular size – особливий розмір

8) satisfactory - задовільно

9) to realize - уявляти

EXERCISES

1) Find the English equivalents to the following word combinations:

У зв’язку з; різні частини; на початку дизайну; судячи з результату; проста та явна ідея; існуючі житлові території; залежати від; широке різноманіття;

2)Answer the questions:

1) What does the appearance of the area develop from?

2) What does the term “residential area” mean?

3) What two essential conditions does the simple and obvious idea require?

4) What’s a neighborhood?

5) What have many authorities recommended?

6) What does much depend on?

3) Complete the sentences in your own words:

1) The appearance of the area develops …..

2) These latter problems which are at the root of design ….

3) The term “residential area” is commonly taken ……

4) It may be said at the outset that the area …….

5) …………. are necessary to meet the needs of the Inhabitants.

6) There may be very wide variations …………

4)Translate into English:

1) Термін «дизайн» у зв’язку з територіями розташування різних частин (домів, доріг та ін.) можуть бути побудовані економічно та приносити задоволення.

2) Вид території розвивається з її призначення та засобу будування ї не є тем, що прийнято після вирішення наукових, конструкційних ті економічних проблем.

3) Можна сказати з початку, що територія повинна бути ідентичною та дати резидентам можливість відчути, що вона належить їм.

4) Зараз встановлено, що територія житлових приміщень, хоча і добре спроектованої недостатньо для задоволення потреб мешканців.

5) Багато залежить від структури всього міста та топографії, що можуть бути різних розмірів та форми.

Text 15

VOCABULARY NOTES

1) rigidity – жорсткість

2) to make assumptions – робити припущення

3) to introduce errors – виявити помилки

4) to keep something in mind – брати щось до уваги

5) wrought iron – зварювальне залізо

6) reinforced concrete - залізобетон

7) deflections – відхилення

8) to be accompanied - супроводжуватись

9) to vanish - зникнути

10) distortion – викривлення

EXERCISES

1) Find the English equivalents to the following word combinations and phrases;

Виконувати окремі функції; досягнути; знання основних правил; основні теореми; напруга; поведінка матеріалів; довжина брусу; еластичний; закон Гука.

2) Answer the questions:

1) Why is the structure built?

2) What is necessary to perform certain functions?

3) What is important in structural design?

4) What’s the stress analysis?

5) What can serve as a safe basis for departure from methods?

6) What do the materials follow in building?

7) How does Hooke’s law sound?

8) What materials are elastic?

9) What are distortions?

10) What are distortions accompanied by?

3) Translate into English :

1)Структура будується для виконання деяких функцій.

2) Економія та гарний зовнішній вигляд є подальшими важливими об’єктами в структурному дизайні.

3) Визнання цього факту з розглядом економії часу та витрат на дизайн часто ведуть до того, що дизайнер робить припущення, що є вірними та намагається виявити помилки.

4) Багато матеріалів, що використовуються в будівництві слідують закону Гука.

5) Такі матеріали як сталь, зварювальна сталь, дерево та залізобетон є еластичними.

6) Викривлення можуть або не можуть супроводжуватись стресом в елементах структури.

Text 16

Integrated Building System

The procedure for erecting building structures has changed during the past few years. Field work requires workers to perform complicated tasks in a highly dangerous environment. There is a need to develop new technology to protect workers from the dangerous job environment and emphasize cost-efficiency, especially in the construction of multistory structures with repeated cycles.

The Integrated Building Systems program was developed to coordinate research projects in automated construction and connection systems. The objective of this technology is to design, fabricate, erect, and evaluate cost-effective building systems with a focus on providing a computer integrated approach to these activities.

A family of structural systems, beam-to-column connections, in both concrete and steel, will possess the capability of being erected by automated construction techniques. The technology for automated construction is heavily dependent on the use of platform cranes which are controlled by a system of six cables to allow precise movement in six directions.

The emphasis of these new designs is on cost-efficient fabrication as well as geometric configurations which provide an automatic self-guided erection feature to greatly facilitate initial placement. This feature will minimize human assistance during construction and will result in quicker, less expensive erection procedures in which workers are less susceptible to injury or fatalities.

A model building frame was developed as a case study to compare the Integrated Building system to conventional construction. Based on the results, the range of projected cost savings was between 9% and 12%. A consortium of government, industry, and university partners is envisioned as the most effective mechanism to move these technologies from the laboratory to the field.

VOCABULARY NOTES :

1. the procedure – процедура

2. dangerous environment – небезпечна середовища

3. a focus – мета

4. to be dependent on – залежати від...

5. cable – кабель

6. to injury – постраждати

7. cost savings – збереження

8. to be based en – базуватися на...

9. to possess – володіти

EXERCISES:

1) Find the English equivalents to the following word – combinations :

- на протязі останніх декілька років.

- польові роботи

- виконувати складні завдання

- цикли, що повторюються

- дослідницький проект

- технології конструкцій

- рух

2) Complete the sentences with year own words :

1. The procedure for erecting building structures…

2. The Integrated Building System was developed…

3. The technology for automated construction heavily depends on…

4. A model building frame was developed…

5. … the range of projected cost savings…

3) Answer the questions :

1) What does field work require?

2) Why was the Integrated Building System developed?

3) How is a family of structural systems called?

4) What is the technology for automated construction depended on?

5) What is the use of platform cranes controlled by?

6) Why was a model building frame developed?

4) Translate into English :

1) Процедура для спорудження будівель змінилась протягом останніх декількох років.

2) Для польових робіт потрібні робітники, щоб виконувати складні завдання в дуже небезпечних середовищах.

3) Інтегрована будівельна система була розроблена з метою координувати дослідницькі проекти в автоматичних конструкціях та системах зв’язку.

4) Технологія для автоматичної конструкції сильно залежить від використання кранів з платформою, які контролюються системою з 6-ти кабелів.

5)Схема моделі будування була розроблена для вивчення порівняття інтегрованої будівельної системи та звичайної конструкції.

Text 17

ARCHITECTURE OF A HOUSE

1. Styling of a House.- When a house is to be built there are a number of things which should be given careful thought before the work is started and even before the plans for the building are drawn.

Among these may be mentioned the selection of the lot on which the dwelling is to be built, the position of the house and garage on the lot with reference to the streets and the position of the different rooms with reference to the four points of the compass-North, South, East and West. At the same time when these things are being considered, another point must be kept in mind, that is the "style" in which the building is to be planned or, in other words, its exterior appearance. This decision should be made before plans for the house are started. The important question is also how much money can be spent on the building.

2. Designing Elevations. - An elevation is a drawing showing one side of a building. Since most houses are rectangular in plan, there will usually be four elevations. All the door or window openings and other features of construction which occur on the outside surfaces of the exterior walls can be shown on the elevations in their true dimension (to scale) as regards width and height. The elevations are practical working drawings, the purpose of which is to give to the workmen the information necessary in order that they may first set a price on the work to be done and then carry it out properly after the contract has been awarded.

The floor plans are also prepared for this purpose. The elevations must agree with the plans in giving the general dimensions of the house and the location and width of the door and window openings on each floor and other features such as balconies, porches, terraces, bay-windows, etc. Taken together the plans and elevations give the length, width, and height of every part of the house in such a way that when the various parts are built to these dimensions, they will form the completed building just as the designer saw it in his mind when he was making the drawings.

The choice of style of elevation depends upon several factors. Some are guided primarily by cost, others by desire for a certain style. Most people are concerned with the arrangement of rooms-the floor plan-and will let the exterior of the house be modified as necessary to conform to the floor plan selected. Elevations for houses in the Modernistic Style are entirely different from those for traditional houses. They usually have extremely large window areas, extending to and around the corners of the building. This with the flat roof makes almost box-like appearance, which seems strange to one accustomed to the traditional style.

Material for Elevation. - The choice of material is governed by the style and by the cost. Many styles can be worked out in any several materials or in combinations of two or three. Brick and siding, shingles and siding, brick and stucco, wood, plaster, stone and concrete-all can be handled in interesting fashion. The materials used for roofs are shingles, slate or tile. Tile and shingles are in most cases the most expensive roof materials, slate is less costly. For wall construction, brick is cheaper

than siding, and brick cheaper than stone, in most localities.

The elevations show the heights of all openings in the outside walls and the height of the window and door sills above the finished levels of the different floors. Exterior doors are apt to be 2 feet 8 inches or 2 feet 10 inches wide and 6 feet 8 inches or 6 feet 10 inches high. The larger sizes are to be applicable to the front entrance door and the smaller sizes to the rear entrance door. There is a danger in making exterior doorway too narrow, because furniture and other things must be carried through them. The front entrance door should be of a good design in keeping with the style of the house. Window openings can be of various sizes to suit the ideas of the designer. There are two kinds of windows used in houses. There are the double-hung and casement windows. The first consists of two counterweighted sashes sliding up and down; the second has one or two sashes hinged at the side and swinging horizontally in or out. There is also a bay window which is seldom seen today. Wooden shutters or blinds are often used on some of the windows of a house. Sometimes they are solid and sometimes slatted. An up-to-date house must contain one or more bedrooms for sleeping, a kitchen for preparing the meals, a dining room, a utility room for laundry and storage, and a living room for reading, writing, entertaining visitors and so forth. In addition to these rooms every present-day house contains a bathroom and may include a recreation room in the basement, and study.

Vocabulary notes.

Reference – посилання Rectangular - прямокутний

Dimension - розмір

As regard – щодо, відносно

In order to – для того, щоб Bay-window – лихтар, еркер To work out – розробляти Shingles - галька

Stucco - штукатурка

Sash – віконна рама

Exercises

Text 18

Vocabulary notes.

Predetermined property – визначена властивість Watertight - водонепроникний

According to the purpose – згідно призначенню Thaw - відлига

To meet requirements – задовільняти вимоги Environment - середовище

Average density – середня щільнист Admixture – домішка, суміш

Exercises

Text 19

Vocabulary notes.

Overall dimension – загальний розмір Cross-section – поперечний переріз Reinforcement - підкріплення, арматура Precast concrete – сбірний бетон Hollow-core – порожній стержень

Void - порожнеча

Moist - вологий

To predetermine – вирішувати наперед

Truss - ферма

Distinction – відмінність, особливість Even surface – рівна поверхня

Mould - форма

Exercises

Text 20

When structures are designed to resist special load combinations, short-time loads or the respective forces should be multiplied by a combination factor of 0.8, except the cases covered by specifications for structures in earthquake regions. The special load proper should be taken into account without any reduction.

Vocabulary notes

Archive - архів

Exercises

What groups are loads divided into according to their duration? 2. What groups are live loads subdivided into? 3. What are dead loads? 4. What do long-time loads include? 5. What loads do short-time loads include? 6. How are the basic values for dead loads deduced? 7. How are the basic values for live loads deduced? 8. What do basic load combinations consist of?

Text 21

Рефератний переклад

Одним з таких скорочених варіантів повного письмового перекладу є рефератний переклад.

1) реферативний переклад

2) переклад типу «експрес-інформація»

3) сигнальний переклад головних пунктів формули винаходу (переклад патентних рефератів)

Робота над реферативним перекладом складається з наступних етапів:

3) Читання залишених місць і виключення можливих диспропорцій і незв’язності.

Анотаційний переклад

Головна відмінність анотації статті чи книги – це характеристика оригіналу.

Text 1

CIVIL ENGINEERING

The part played by civil engineers in pioneering work and in developing wide areas of the world has been and continues to be enormous.

Civil engineering was not distinguished from other branches of engineering until 200 years ago. This term was first used to distinguish the work of the engineer with a

VOCABULARY NOTES

1. pioneering work – труд першевідкривача

2. civil engineering – цівільне будівництво

3. military engineering – військово-будівельна справа

4. to be engaged in smith – займатися чим небудь

5. to be responsible (for smth.) – відповідати

6. degree of involvement (with other fields) – ступень зв’язку

7. in contrast to – на відміну від

8. to make use of smth. – користуватись чим- небудь.

9. domestic dwelling – житловий будинок

10. multistory flats – багатоквартирний будинок

11. with (in) reference to – відносно

12. water supply – водопостачання

13. hydroelectric schemes – гідроелектричні проекти

14. precast (prefabricated) concrete – збірний бетон

15. reinforced concrete – залізобетон

16. prestressed concrete – попередньо напружений бетон

17. a great deal of – багато

18. hard and fast (dividing line) – непорушна

EXERCISES

1. Find in the text English equivalents of the following word – combinations:

2. Combine the word “domestic” with the proper English word to form the equivalents of the following Ukrainian word – combinations:

Житловий будинок goods

Домашні справи gas

Домашні тварини cares

Внутрішні справи affairs

Домоведення animals

Вітчизняні товари dwelling

Комунальній газ science

3. Translate into English using words and expressions from the text:

4 . Answer the following questions on the text: 1. What is civil engineering?

Text 2

URBANIZATION AND ECOLOGY

Ecology is the study of the relationships between living things and the environment. Urban ecology, deals with the relationship between man and his most common home, the urban environment.

Unlike a lake or a forest, the urban environment is largely man-made. Man therefore takes a more prominent position in the development of the environment.

VOCABULARY NOTES

1. environment – середовище

2. prominent – видатний

3. impact – вплив

4. influence – вплив

5. to oust – вигоняти

6. consequence – наслідок

7. simultaneously – одночасно

EXERCISES

1. Read the text and answer the following questions:

Discuss the problem described in the text.

Text 3

TYPES OF BUILDINGS

Types of buildings upon social formations may be classified according to the community. The types of buildings may be domestic, educational, office, industrial, recreational, etc.

EXERCISES

1. Find the Ukrainian equivalents of the following English terms.

1. building materials технічний прогрес

2. techniques сучасний

3. residential construction забезпечувати

4. technological changes теплоізоляція

5. mechanized operations методи будівництва

6. site залізобетонні блоки

7. reinforced concrete blocks житлове будівництво

8. construction methods методи

9. thermal insulation будівельні матеріали

10. to provide механізовані операції

11. contemporary будівельний майданчик

12. technological advances зміни в технологічному процесі

12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Следующая ⇒

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