Revenge, thief, blood feud, victim, tax, debt, the Ten Commandments, inheritance, outlawed, kidnapping, deals with, circumstance

1. ________ are a list of religious and moral imperatives that are given to Moses on the mountain referred to as "Mount Sinai" in the form of two stone tablets. 2. Her offensive conduct is a _______ to be taken into consideration. 3. The farmer and his family have had _______ with their neighbours on the other side of the valley for thirty years. 4. All societies have _______ murderers and robbers. 5. A _______ of a crime in criminal law is the person who has been harmed individually and directly by the defendant, rather than merely society as a whole. 6. In criminal law, _______ is the taking away of a person against the person’s will, usually to hold the person in false imprisonment without legal authority. 7. Although many aspects of _______ resemble or echo the concept of justice, it usually has a more injurious than harmonious goal. 8. A ________ is a financial charge imposed on an individual or a legal entity by a state or a functional equivalent of a state. 9. _______ is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, and obligations upon the death of an individual. 10. He is heavily in ________ after losing the lawsuit. 11. In criminal law, the ________ is a person who illegally takes another person’s property without that person’s freely-given consent. 12. Head Office ________ all complaints.

B: Fill in the appropriate preposition or adverb.

1. Laws and rules are descended ____ the customs and conventions. 2. This is the first question which I propose to deal ____. 3. In 1787 George Washington was called to preside ____ the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. 4. The committee’s plans are set ____ in the report. 5. He had to pay the compensation ____ termination of contract. 6. He had to pay medical bills ____ civil code and he was charged with the crime of assault ____ criminal code. 7. The principle ____ revenge means an eye ____ an eye and a tooth ____ a tooth. 8. Her photograph corresponds ____ the description that he gave us. 9. The accused inflicted bodily injury ____ his victim. 10. Hammurabi’s laws took account ____ the circumstances of the offender as well ____ the offence. 11. The committee examined the case ____ detail. 12. ____ addition ____ a big fine, he faces imprisonment. 13. The Law was carved ____ twelve bronze tablets, so it was called the Law of the Twelve Tablets.

4. Choose a word or phrase (a, b, or c) which best completes the unfinished sentence:

1. We don’t know anything about earliest laws because … .  a) they were not written; b) they didn’t exist; c) they were not codified;

2. The Code of Hammurabi was drawn up in… . a) about 1400 B.C.; b) about 1728 to 1686 B.C.; c) between 451 to 449 B.C.;

3. The principle of revenge means … a) you must inflict the same damages if you had been offended; b) that if a person committed a crime, he faced the death penalty; c) the punishment must be equal to the crime;

4. Hammurabi’s Code outlawed … . a) murder; b) private blood feuds; c) theft;

5. One of the most known collections of laws is ….. called the Torah. a) Ur-Nammu-code; b) the laws of Babylon; c) the law of the Tablets;

6. The Old Testament which is called the Torah means … .  a) the sacred; b) the book; c) law;

7. The Code of Hebraic Laws…. . a) was commercially-oriented; b) reflected the agrarian

community; c) served the nobility interests. 

8. Hammurabi’s code regulated both …. and civil matters. a) criminal; b) international; c) tribal

5. Match the definition in the right column to the word in the left.

1. outlaw	a. a person guilty of unlawful killing of someone on purpose;
2. victim	b. to pay attention to rules, laws, etc.;
3. observe	c. to place a person outside the protection of law;
4. Old Testament	d. a person, who does wrong, commits an offence;
5. murderer	e. one of the division of the Bible;
6. revenge	f. deliberate infliction of injury upon the person who has inflicted injury;
7. offender	g. a civil officer acting as a judge in the lowest court;
8. magistrate	h. a person suffering injury, pain, loss etc. because of circumstances, events, the ill-will, etc.

6. Find a word in the text that means:

1) the use of magic power, especially with the aid of evil spirits; 2) a punishment imposed for a violation of law or rule; 3) an accepted social custom or practice; 4) not clearly or explicitly stated or expressed; 5) payment for damage or loss, restitution; 6) harm or damage done or suffered; 7) carry away somebody by force and unlawfully in order to obtain ransom (викуп); 8) person who steals secretly and without violence; 9) belief in divine truth, religion; 10) people living in one place, district or country, considered as a whole.

7. Look through the text again and decide whether the following sentences are true or false.

1. The law was born in the primitive times. 2. Ur-Nammu was a Babylonian lawgiver. 3. The first known legal text banned slave-trade. 4. Moses drew up the most ancient law code. 5. Hammurabi’s Code only dealt with serious crimes. 6. The Babylonians observed the principle of an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. 7. All the Babylonian citizens were treated equally. 8. Mosaic Law is set out in the Bible. 9. The Ten Commandments were given to Moses by God. 10. Ancient people believed that laws were made by gods.

8. Answer the questions.

1. Why is it difficult to judge about the earliest laws? 2. Where and why did the first laws appear? 3. What issues did the early laws emphasize? 4. Why do you think Hammurabi decided to have his laws carved into the pillars? 5. What spheres of human life were covered by Hammurabi’s code? Explain the choice. 6. How do you understand the principle ‘an eye for eye, a tooth for a tooth’? 7. Were punishments always fair? Why? 8. Were people of different ranks treated differently by Hammurabi’s code? 9. What legend is the Mosaic Law based on? 10. What does the Old Testament mean?

 

9. Translate into English.

A) 1. Закони походять від договорів або звичаїв, що завжди були частиною людського життя. 2. Закони Ур-Намму, головним чином, стосувалися штрафу за чаклунство та біглих рабів. 3. Для того щоб всі могли прочитати його закони, він встановив кам’яний стовп у храмі. 4. Основні принципи Мойсеєва Закону викладено в перших п’яти книгах Старого Завіту. 5. Деякі закони Хаммурапі існують і досі, але у дещо іншій формі. 6. Перші найпростіші суспільства мали дуже прості закони. 7. Закони регулювали ціни на товари, питання спадщини, майнові угоди, а також володіння рабами. 8. Раніше він часто порушував закон, але зараз він законослухняний (law-abiding) громадянин. 9. Громадяни Вавилону могли прочитати закони, викарбувані на кам’яному стовпі у храмі вавилонському богу Мардуку. 10. Кодекс Хаммурапі ставив викрадання жінки поза законом. 

B) У 1901 році французькі археологи знайшли кам’яний стовп серед руїн перського міста Сузи. Текст, викарбуваний на кам’яному стовпі, був найдревнішим кодексом законів. Він був складений Хаммурапі, царем Вавилону, у 18-му столітті до нашої ери.

Кодекс складається із 282 статей. Встановлений у храмі вавилонського бога Мардука, «стовп законів» повинен був служити правосуддю і в той же самий час нагадувати: закони повинні знати всі. Кодекс стосувався усіх сфер життя. Він ставив поза законом вбивство, викрадення нареченої, помсту. Покарання за ці злочини були суворі. Вони засновані на принципі Таліону: покарання повинні бути рівними злочинові – око за око, зуб за зуб. За цим кодексом, людині, яка звинуватила (accuse) іншу і не могла представити свідка, що підтверджував її слова, погрожувала смертна кара за наклепництво.

Кодекс також стосувався питань майна та спадщини. Хаммурапі встановив грошовий штраф, який враховував як саме правопорушення, так і соціальний статус громадянина.

10. Speaking Speak about the following items:

1. The birth of law.

2. Hammurabi’s Code.

3. The Mosaic Law.

 

11. Writing Write a mini-composition for or against the following statement ‘Laws haven’t changed since primitive times’.

Reading 2: The Legal Heritage of Greece and Rome

Pre-reading task. Read words. Mind the stress. A):

΄ measure                      be΄lief                                satis΄factory

΄ ultimately            dic΄tatorship                      mode΄ration

΄culminate                     a΄ssembly                          elimi΄nation

΄ subsequent               se΄vere                          aris΄tocracy

΄ tyranny                 e΄liminate                          civili΄zation

΄ homicide                         pro΄hibit                             prohi΄bition

 

B) Complete the word building table.

Noun                     Verb	Verb                 Noun
belief	to culminate
dictatorship	to prohibit
solution	to eliminate
enslavement	to separate
moderation	to revise
decision	to compile
corruption	to attribute

C) Read words. Mind the stress.

Noun       Verb	Noun       Verb
΄attribute – to a΄ttribute	΄present – to pre΄sent
΄conduct – to con΄duct	΄record – to re΄cord

 

D). Before you read look through the following words and phrases to make sure that you know them. Learn those that you don’t know.

to attribute (to) [ə´tribju:t] They attributed their success to hard work.	приписувати, відносити; Вони приписували свій успіх напруженій праці.
belief [bi΄l:f] to express a belief false / mistaken belief to shake one's belief to give up one's belief	віра; довіра; висловити довіру; помилкове переконання; похитнути чиїсь переконання; припинити довіряти;
to draw up (drew, drawn) Has your lawyer drawn up the contract yet?	складати, укладати; розробляти; Ви вже розробили угоду?
extremely [iks΄tri:mli] [eks΄tri:mli]	надзвичайно;
measure [´meЗə] draconian measure harsh/ drastic measure compulsory measure emergency /extreme/ radical measure  to take measures against smuggling	міра; захід; драконівська міра; суворі міри; примусові міри; крайні заходи; надзвичайні міри;   прийняти міри проти контрабанди;
to apply (to) [ə΄plai]   What I am saying does not apply to you. to apply the new method We applied to the authorities for assistance.	1. стосуватися, відноситися; 2. застосовувати, вживати; 3. звертатися з проханням, заявою (письмово) Те, що я кажу, вас не стосується.   застосовувати новий метод Ми звернулися до повноважних органів про допомогу.
ultimately [´Λltimətli] These questions, however, cannot be decided ultimately today.	остаточно, повністю; в основі; в решті решт; Проте ці питання не можна остаточно вирішити сьогодні.
to devise [di´vaiz]	винайти; придумати; розробляти;
trial [´traiəl] at a trial trial by jury [´dЗuəri]	судовий розгляд, судовий процес, суд; на суді; розгляд справи за участю присяжних;
to retain [ri´tein] The Bank of England has taken further steps to retain control over the value of the pound.	зберігати; Національний банк Англії вдався до подальших кроків, щоб зберегти контроль над вартістю фунта стерлінгів.
ancient [´ein∫ənt] the remains of ancient art at Athens	стародавній; античний; залишки античного мистецтва в Афінах;
to split (split, split) to split one’s vote They are easily split into parties by intrigue.	розбивати; ділити; голосувати одночасно за кандидатів різних партій; Їх легко розколоти на окремі групування за допомогою інтриг.
rival [´raivl] rival firms rival candidates	ворожий, конкуруючий; конкуруючі фірми; конкуруючі кандидати;
faction extremist faction rebel faction white necktie faction	фракція; групування; екстремістське групування; угрупування повстанців; «фрачна фракція» (іронічна назва політичної еліти)
to culminate [´kΛlmineit] Years of waiting culminated in a tearful reunion. The event culminates in a black tie dinner.	кульмінувати, досягти апогею; привести до; Роки очікування закінчилися сльозливим примиренням. Кульмінацією заходу буде офіційний обід.
subsequent [´sΛbsikwənt] subsequent chapter It was subsequent to the death of both his parents.	наступний, подальший; наступна глава; Це було після смерті обох його батьків.
tyranny [´tirəni] to overthrow a tyranny ruthless tyranny	тиранія; скинути тиранію; безжалісна тиранія;
dictatorship [dik´teitə∫ip] to establish, set up a dictatorship an absolute dictatorship	диктатура; встановити диктатуру; абсолютна диктатура;
satisfactory satisfactory result	задовільний; задовільний результат;
solution [sə΄lu:∫(ə)n] to apply a solution to find a solution satisfactory solution solution of case	рішення; застосувати рішення; знайти рішення; задовільне рішення; розкриття справи (поліцією);
to be eligible [΄elidЗəbl] to be eligible for an office to be eligible for parole	мати право; мати право бути обраним; підходити; підходити на посаду; мати право на умовне-дострокове звільнення;
moderation	урегулювання; стриманість; рівність; пом’якшення;
proper	належний; характерний;
to prohibit [prəu´hibit] Visitors are prohibited from feeding the animals.	забороняти; Відвідувачам забороняється годувати тварин.
humane [hju´mein]	гуманний, людяний;
assembly [ə´sembli] e.g. legislative assembly United Nations General Assembly	асамблея; збори; законодавчі збори; Генеральна асамблея ООН;
to establish [is΄tæbli∫] to establish a committee to establish contact / relationship to establish the cause of death	встановлювати; запровадити; заснувати комітет; встановити контакт / відносини; встановити причину смерті;
severe [si´viə] severe discipline	суворий; сувора дисципліна;
to appeal [ə´pi:l] to appeal to a higher court	подавати апеляцію; апелювати; звертатися; звернутися з апеляцією до вищого суду
homicide [´homisaid] homicide department	вбивство; відділ по розслідуванню вбивств;
in essence [´esns] He was in essence an honest person.	в основному; по суті; По суті він був чесною людиною.
to be based on [baist]	бути заснованим на;
certain [´sə:tn] almost, nearly certain absolutely /completely certain	певний; майже певний; повністю певний;
profound effect have a profound effect on / upon	глибокий вплив; мати глибокий вплив на щось;
to compile [kəm´pail] The French Academy took forty years to compile their Dictionary.	укладати;  Національна Академія наук Франції витратила 40 років, щоб укласти словник.
elimination [i,limi´nei∫n] / to eliminate [i´limineit] the prohibition and elimination of chemical weapons elimination of nuclear weapons the need to eliminate poverty	усунення, знищення; усунути, знищити;   заборона та знищення хімічної зброї;   заборона ядерної зброї; потреба знищити бідність;
to pass to pass a law	приймати (закони); приймати закон;
intact [in´tækt]	недоторканий; неушкоджений, цілий

1. Read and translate the text.

The ancient Greeks were among the first to develop a concept of law that separated everyday laws and religious beliefs. Before Greeks most civilizations attributed their laws to gods and goddesses. Instead, the Greeks believed that laws were made by the people and for the people. In the seventh century B.C., Draco drew up Greece’s first written code of laws. Draco’s laws were shockingly severe, so severe that people say that they were written not in ink but in blood. On the civil side they permitted enslavement for debt, and death was the penalty for almost all criminal offences. Thus, the term draconian usually applies to extremely harsh measures.

Several decades passed before Solon – poet, military hero, and ultimately Athens’s lawgiver – devised a new code of laws. The early 6^th century was a troubled time for the Athenians. The aristocracy of birth owned the best land, and they were themselves split into rival factions. The social, economic and political evils might have culminated in a revolution and subsequent tyranny (dictatorship), had it not been for Solon, to whom Athenians turned in the hope of generally satisfactory solution of their problems. Because he believed in moderation and in an ordered society in which each class had its proper place and function, his solution was not revolution but reform. He retained trial by jury, an ancient Greek tradition, but prohibited enslavement of debtors. Under Solon’s law citizens of Athens were eligible to serve in the Assembly, and courts were established in which they could appeal government decisions. Solon revised every statute except that on homicide and made Athenian law altogether more humane. What the Greeks contributed to the Roman law was the concept of ‘natural law’. In essence, natural law was based on the belief that certain basic principles are above the laws of nature. These principles arise from the nature of people. The concept had a profound effect on the modern world. 

Another earliest code of laws, the Law of the Twelve Tablets, was written between 451 B.C. and 449 B.C. The Law was carved into twelve bronze tablets set up in the Forum for everyone to see. It remained in use for over 1000 years. The second great set of Roman laws, the Justinian Code was compiled under the direction of Justinian, Emperor of Rome. Justinian was concerned with elimination of corruption and making justice available to everyone. The Code consisted of four works: a) all the imperial edicts; b) the Digest, the decisions of the great Roman jurists; c) the Institutes, which served as a hand-book for law students; d) the Novels, or ‘new laws’, passed by Justinian himself.

By 100 A. D., the Roman Empire had spread over much of Europe. It remained intact until the fifth century A.D. As a result, the two Roman codes greatly influenced the laws of all European countries, including France and England.

2. Find the English equivalents to the following words and expressions in the text.

розвинути концепцію права; приписувати закони богам; скласти кодекс законів; стосуватися надзвичайно жорстоких мір; повністю афінський законодавець; поневолення боржників; розбити на ворожі фракції; соціальні, політичні та економічні негаразди; тиранія, що настала; загально задовільне рішення; впорядковане суспільство; належне місце та функція; шокуючи суворий; написані кров’ю; прийняти закони; під керівництвом; переглянути; вбивство; більш людяний; знищення корупції; зробити правосуддя доступним кожному; залишитися незайманим; імператорські укази  

3. A: Fill in the appropriate word from the list below.

homicide(s) - 2, rival, eliminate, prohibited, ultimately, dictatorship, established, drawn up, split, appeal, subsequent, Assembly, solution, measures, apply, passes

1. The lawyer has _______ a plan to win the case. 2. We took _______ to insure their safety. 3. Every kingdom _______ depends on moral influence and not on physical force. 4. He will go on _______ later this month charged with murder. 5. The coalition is _______ into _______ factions. 6. The Act of Union and the _______ acts united the territory of the country. 7. The Soviet power established the _______ of the proletariat. 8. I’m sure the police will find the _______ to this case. 9. Smoking is strictly _______. 10. The General ________ is composed of representatives of nearly all the nations of the world. 11. To help the Court of Justice cope with the large number of cases brought before it, a ‘Court of First Instance’ was _______ in 1989. 12. The universities have to _______ to the government for more money. 13. _______ do not always involve a crime; sometimes the law allows ________, for example, in self defence. 14. One of the urgent tasks of modern societies is to ________ corruption. 15. When parliament ________ a bill, it becomes a law.

B: Fill in the appropriate preposition or adverb where necessary.

1. We attribute trial ____ jury ____ ancient Greeks. 2. She gave evidence ____ his trial. 3. Children are prohibited ____ buying cigarettes. 4. Draco’s laws were so severe that people said that they were written _____ blood. 5. This law does not apply ____ this case. 6. The economic and political crisis culminated ____ the revolution. 7. The Greeks contributed the concept of ‘natural law’ ____ the Roman law. 8. ____ Solon’s law Athenians could appeal government decisions _____ court. 9. Justinian tried to make justice available ____ everyone. 10. Justinian’s Code consisted ____ the edicts, the Digest, the Institutes and the Novels. 11. The Roman codes greatly influenced ____ the laws of all Europe.

4. Match the definition in the right column to the word in the left.

1. to appeal	a. discontented, often self-interested group of persons within a party;
2. measure	b. kind of government existing when a ruler has complete power, esp. when this power has been obtained by force;
3. to contribute	c. to join with others in giving help, money, ideas, suggestion for a common purpose;
4. trial	d. to examine and accept;
5. jury	e. body of persons who swear to give a decision (verdicts) on issues;
6. faction	f. killing of a human being;
7. rival	g. size, quantity, degree, weight, etc., found by a standard or unit;
8. tyranny	h. a person who competes with another because he wants the same thing or to be or to do better than the other;
9. to pass	i. examination in a law court before a judge (or a judge and a jury);
10. homicide	j. to take a question to a higher court for rehearing and a new decision;

5. Read and say whether these statements are true or false.

1. People began to draw up laws only after paper had been invented. 2. Most civilizations believed that gods made laws. 3. Solon’s code was the first written Greek code. 4. Draco’s code provided for death for all criminal offences. 5. The ancient Greeks had a tradition of trial by jury. 6. All Greeks were eligible to serve in the Assembly. 7. Romans devised the concept of natural law. 8. Solon’s laws prevented the revolution in Greece. 9. Roman laws influenced laws of all European countries. 10. The English legal system has Roman roots as well.

6. Choose a word or phrase (a, b, c) which best suits the sentence.

1. The Law carved into twelve bronze tablets was set up … . 

a) in the Assembly; b) in the Forum; c) in the temple;

2. Draco’s laws were … .

a) humane; b) fair; c) severe;

3. Solon …… almost all Draco’s laws.

a) revised; b) retained; c) permitted;

4. Courts in Athens were established by…… 

a) Draco; b) Solon; c)Justinian;

5. The Digest was ….

a) a hand-book for law students; b) the decisions of the great Roman jurists; c) laws passed by Justinian;

6. The English law system has …. as part of its hereditary roots.

a) the Hebraic Code; b) the law of Babylon; c) the Roman law;

7. The Roman Empire remained intact until … . 

a) the 10^th century A.D.; b) the 5^th century A.D.; c) the first century B.C.

7. Translate into English.

А. 1. Вбивство не є кримінальним злочином, якщо воно скоєне для самозахисту. 2. Ця партія розбита на невеличкі фракції. 3. Вони подали апеляцію до вищого суду. 4. Суддя провів чотири процеси за один день. 5. Суд розглядав його справу за участю присяжних. 6. Його обвинуватили у скоєнні тяжкого правопорушення. 7. Римське право мало глибокий вплив на юридичну систему Європи. 8. Соціальні, економічні та політичні негаразди можуть призвести до революції. 9. Не треба приписувати свою недбалість незнанню (ignorance) законів. 10. Ніщо не може похитнути мої переконання, що надзвичайно суворі міри не знищать злочинність. 11. Грецькі законодавці зробили великий внесок та мали глибокий вплив на законодавство Риму. 12. Лікар встановив причину смерті потерпілого. 13. Всі громадяни, які досягли вісімнадцятирічного віку, мають право бути обраними до асамблеї. 14. Парламент прийняв закон після третього читання.

Б. Драконт – афінський законодавець, чиї суворі закони передбачали (provide for) тільки одне покарання – смерть – за незначні порушення та тяжкі злочини, скоєні в Афінах. Навіть лінощі (idleness) каралися смертю. Його ім’я також пов’язується з усім жорстоким та безжалісним – «драконівські міри», «драконівські закони», «драконівський кодекс».

Кодекс Драконта, який датується 621 р. до нашої ери, не був першим записаним кодексом афінських законів, але він, ймовірно, був першим повним кодексом чи переробкою попередніх законів. Пізніше Солон скасував (to abolish) драконівські закони та видав (to issue) нові, залишивши незмінним лише покарання за вбивство.

8. Speaking Speak on the following items:

1. The Greek laws.

2. The Roman laws.

3. The influence of ancient laws on the modern world.

9. Writing Write a mini-composition for or against the following statement ‘There is some internal law. It is good for all times and places.’

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