What is Modern Architecture?

Trying to define modern architecture was a problem that many architects struggled to explain. No one before had created what we now know as “modern” architecture. In the past architects were able to look into history to gain an inspiration for buildings however, this approach would not fit in this new age of the machine. Industrialization changed the way people thought. The Industrial Revolution allowed products to be produced on an industrial scale, allowing ordinary people access to goods that would have been otherwise not have been in their reach.

Architecture was slow to adapt to industrialization and the industrial age brought new problems never seen before. One such of architecture’s main goals is to faithfully represent its time; this idea is known as Zeitgeist or “Spirit of the Age.” Since an age of the machine was a never before seen phenomenon, architects had to think slightly ahead of their time in order to keep up with the changes going on in society. Many architects such as Le Corbusier, Frank Lloyd Wright, Walter Gropius and Ludwig Mies worked tirelessly to establish themselves as leaders in their field. They came up with ideas such as harmony between architecture and nature, and function over form. Ludwig Miles was one such architect who tried to cement his place in history through the creative use of concrete, steel and glass. Mies’s style was known to follow the saying “less is more.” One of his greatest known buildings is the Seagram Building. Built in New York City in 1958, it was one of the most expensive buildings built at that time. The Seagram building was built in 1958, during a time “when Park Avenue was transforming from an exclusive residential neighborhood to a prestigious business address, the Seagram building embodies the quest of a successful corporation to establish further its public image through architectural patronage.” Using expensive material such as glass and steel, it was critically acclaimed as being a symbol of beauty in architecture. Critics from both the past and present highly respected the building and felt it was a prime example of modern architecture and would influence buildings to come.

The plaza of the Seagram building was hailed as Mies’s response to city life. In order to make his building unique, Mies pushed the building back about 100 feet from the sidewalk to create a plaza. The plaza was designed using granite, in order to contrast the dark colored glass windows that fill the tower. The plaza itself was able to change the landscape of New York City alone.

“This plaza was also the impetus behind a major change in New York City building codes. Prior to the Seagram Building’s construction, all buildings had to recess at a certain height, which was determined by the total height of the structure. These buildings, like the Empire State and the Chrysler, became known as “wedding cake” style structures. Seagram’s smooth surface design (unique at the time) incited tempers about maintaining the integrity of the New York skyline. To make amends for the view, builders had to provide public space on the ground floor, as did all other buildings that shared the Seagram’s design from then on.”

The mere fact the Meis did not want to create a “wedding cake” designed building, allowed him to think outside the box. By being persistent in his views, Mies was able to design a building that fit with his ideals of uniformity. Previous structures in New York City required setbacks in order to comply with the New York City Zoning Codes. Since this did not fit with Mies’s grand plan, he decided to set back the building from the street therefore allowing him to bypass the setback that would normally be required. It was not long before the city of New York noticed this revolutionary idea. The plaza style of building was soon introduced into the new New York zoning code, allowing architects and engineers everyone to implement Mies’s design.

The plaza is popular with the public as well as critics. Many people enjoy just relaxing at the plaza. This is easily seen in William H. Whyte’s film The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces. Whyte worked tirelessly for many months in order to find out what makes some plazas successful, such as the Seagram Building’s plaza. What Whyte noticed is that the plaza is popular with the younger crowd who enjoy just relaxing outside. They would meet up with their friends or just enjoy the “fresh” city air outside their office buildings. Many citizens just enjoyed eating at the Seagram plaza, even if they were not with anyone; in fact, most of the people loitering at the plaza were solo. Some of the activities enjoyed at the Seagram include people watching, eating lunch, chatting with friends and just relaxing. According to Whyte the fact that there is an abundance of sitting space leads to people taking advantage of it. Many plazas do not have proper places to sit, so therefore people will not even attempt to spend their free time. The Seagram Building has abundance, hence the reason it is so popular with the common folk of New York. In addition to the need of places to sit, those seats must be comfortable. Many plazas try to repel loiters by placing uncomfortable spikes/traps on ledges. While this may benefit the owner of the plaza, the public is never too happy about this. The reason the Seagram Building is so successful is due to its contribution the architectural world, creating a modern style office building, and its contribution to the public, a nice area to sit and relax. Whyte conducted most of his research at the Seagram Building, further cementing its role in architecture history.

The Seagram Building led a new wave of architecture never before seen. Western architecture had always swung between two styles, Gothic and Classical. Mies created a new style when he created the glass box structure known as the Seagram Building; he created the modern office tower. The newspaper article states that “…the classical elements are more obvious: the symmetry of its massing on the raised plaza; the tripartite division of the tower into base, shaft and capital; the rhythmic regularity of its columns and bays…” According to the New York Times article “Opposites Attract” by Herbert Muschamp, the Seagram Building is the perfect mix between classical and gothic architecture. Many architects would most likely agree with this statement because the purpose of modern architecture is to be as functional as possible, as form of rationalism found in classical architecture. However, there is also a form of expression as seen by the liberal use of glass, which settles more with the gothic style of building. As it is perfectly said in the “Opposites Attract” article, “the classical is rational, logical, analytic. The Gothic is intuitive, exploratory, synthetic.”

The lighting of the building has been cited as one of the best any modern building ever built. Many critics like the way that light radiates from the building; it provides a sort of “urban charm and sophistication” If one was to go into the Four Seasons restaurant, it is easy to see how the lighting in the Seagram provides a mood unmatched by any building before it. The restaurant is illuminated by luminous ceilings that are kept lighted night and day. The Architectural Records from 1958 call the lighting beautiful, especially when “on certain late afternoons the glass walls glow softly”. According to the Richard Kelly, a light designer who designed lights for the Seagram in addition to the Kimbell Art Museum, ““I can logically project a great many techniques in lighting to improve people’s lives or to make a house more beautiful, but it’s all theory until we have the record of experience, which we are only beginning to write.”… Today, we can still see and live his work, by visiting any one of these modernist buildings.” Without the risk that Mies and Kelly took at the Seagram, no one would have known how effective lighting could be in architecture. After seeing the success of lighting in the Seagram, many new building designs absorbed Mies’s ideas idea into their plans.

Mies was able to change the way everyone thought about materials used in construction. Most modern architects do not like the use of ornamentation in structures. While Mies was not one to praise ornamentation, in fact he hated it, he did acknowledged when it was necessary. In order to give his building character, Mies installed bronze I beam on the outside that run across the building. Many critics are divided on this subject, not knowing if it was a good choice or not. Arthur Drexler of the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) looked into the construction of the Seagram and decided that although the bronze I beams were ornamentation, they fit with the structure and did not betray Mies’s functionalist rationality. Drexler states that

“"Seen head on," he explained, "a façade appears like a mirror striped with railroad tracks. Seen at an angle the same façade looks like an enormous portiere of narrow steel beams. The two buildings in conjunction seen from almost any angle, present combinations of surface density ranging from a seemingly opaque massing of vertical steel beams to an open cage filmed over with glass." Far from critical of this "decorative" character, Drexler saw the nonstructural use of steel as an important new aesthetic development in modernism.”

Drexler felt that although ornamets are evil, sometimes they natural materials could be used to bring attention to some parts of the building. Other architectural critics however still felt that Mies had betrayed his modernist roots. In response to that, Mies would say that it “didn’t feel right without it.”

The 1900’s were a trying time for architects. Since looking back at the past for inspiration was not a viable option, all had to work from scratch in order to define a new style of architecture. It was not an easy task since this a never before done task. Architects had to adapt with the times and make sure their work reflected the new industrial world. People like Mies worked tirelessly in order to create structures that would define the modern period and fit the zeitgeist. Mies, considered one of the pioneers in modern architecture, created many staples such as the glass box building. His ideas influenced many architects’ works however, the one that was most influential was the Seagram Building. It was a one of a kind office building that was revolutionary in almost every way. The plaza in front of the building got a lot of attention, as it was a private corporate land that was open to the public. The lighting in the building was unique and able to provide the correct environment. The use of ornamental bronze was controversial but opened up the path for more buildings to use building materials for expression. The Seagram Building is one of the most important modern structures created, since it led to the creation of the glass box office towers. Without the Seagram Building, corporate America would be radically different.

 

                                                                                                                                   

Roman Architecture

Many centuries before the birth of Christ, the city of Rome grew, prospered, and developed into a thriving Republic. As in most cultures, Rome's buildings became more elaborate and impressive. They developed fantastic building technologies and ideas. The feats of Roman engineers were groundbreaking, and many structures built by this culture still stand today. With knowledge borrowed from the Greeks, Rome made impressive architectural achievements, these were namely major attributes of buildings, colossal structures, and a legacy that would influence later buildings.  

According to legend, the city of Rome was founded in about 753 BC, by a group of shepherds. It sat at an ideal location, along 7 hills on the Tiber River 15 miles from the Mediterranean Sea in present day Italy. Situated in an ideal defensive location it grew. Roman rule spread throughout the Italian peninsula due to its military strength and diplomacy.                                                                                                       

The first settlements discovered in Rome were on Tiber Island, later the sire of a temple to Aesculapius god of healing. Little is known of early Roman history because its first historical literature was recorded in 200 BC.                                

The earliest structures that were inhabited by the ancient Romans were crude huts. At the end of the seventh century BC these huts were demolished. This made way for a decidedly more urban aspect of construction with permanent stone temples, houses, and various other public buildings. Building was encouraged by the leader Tarquin I who lived from 116 to 579 BC. He made grants of land to be used as building sites. Tarquin promoted the development of shops and porticoes. Servius Tullius, his successor, expanded the city greatly. He surrounded it with a wall. The city of Rome further developed into a large power.                                                  

The ancient Romans created and borrowed fundamental types of concepts that made up buildings. The ideas that the Romans borrowed were basic ideas such as the column. A column is a vertical shaped pillar with the chief design concern of supporting a building. Most columns consist of three parts, the base, the shaft, and the capital. The shaft is usually cylindrical in shape. The Greeks had three basic types of columns, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. All three types have narrow fillets on them. These were small vertical slits that ran the length of the column. The Romans modified the column and added two types, Truscan and Composile. The columns became widely used in homes and temples in Greece and later in Rome. 

The Romans also borrowed from the Greeks other major structural designs. On the top of a column on most temples and public buildings rested an Entablature. This is a classic triangular shaped façade, or front of a building. The Entablature consists of four parts. The lowest part is the Architrave, which sits on top of the capital or upper part of a column. On top of that, the frieze was typically decorated with horizontal bands. The Cornice forms the upper part of the Entablature and extols beyond the frieze on the sides. On the very top sits a Pediment, a triangular segment between the lower Entablature and the roof.

The Romans borrowed the concept of the arch but utilized it fully. An arch is a curved structure used to support the weight above it. At the top of an arch, there is located a keystone, which is a stone that holds the other parts in place. To construct an arch, the Romans supported the blocks with wood, until the keystone was inserted into the arch. A series of arches is called an arcade. Roman leaders built arches to honor their leaders, called triumphal arches. Arches were used more functionally to support aqueducts.                                                                                               

The Romans also developed the vault. A vault is an arched ceiling or roof. Most common was the Barrel Vault but there were two other types. These two other types were the Groined Vault and the Ribbed Vault.                             

 

A later type of vault that developed was the dome. A dome is a curved roof situated on a circular base. Perhaps the most famous building in Rome with a dome is the Pantheon. Columns were sometimes used in domes, but only as a decoration.       

The Roman wealthy lived in fairly large houses. A courtyard called an atrium served as a reception room. An opening in the atrium roof allowed light in. Water collected in a pool in the floor of the atrium. The dining room and bedrooms surrounded the atrium.                                                                                                                    

The atriums were decorated by Mosaic walls and floors. A second courtyard called a peristyle included a garden, fountains, statues, and often a pool. Some houses had an enclosure at the rear of the house with fruit trees and vegetables.

Roman walls stretched great lengths and fortified the extreme boundaries of the great Roman Empire. By the year AD 100 the Romans had built a wall that extended into present-day Germany and Romania. Another wall built by the Romans was Hadrian's Wall. It was built starting in AD 120 and stretched 13 miles. Parts of this wall still stand. Roman walls were build by Roman soldiers primarily when was did not grip the Empire.

Hadrian's Wall was 10 feet wide and 20 meters tall. It was made of stone and turf. Hadrian's Wall was rebuilt three times and defended until AD 400.

Rome was home to incredible buildings. One of these buildings was the Circus Maximus. It was built during the Augustan Age. It was of tremendous size, two thousand feet long by three hundred feet wide. It could seat 200,000 people. The stands were divided up into three sections. The people were protected from animals by a broad channel of water. A wall ran its length, dividing it in half and providing a track for chariot racing, which took place here. The building was faced in marble. The bowels of the stadium provided living quarters and shops. This area was favored by Horace, a great poet, as a place to absorb a vulgar atmosphere.

Rome's other great stadium was the Colosseum. It was also called the Flavian Amphitheater, and it was the largest outdoor arena in the city of Rome. It survives today as one of the most impressive feats of Roman engineering and architecture. The Colosseum was constructed during the reign of Emperor Vespasian. It was dedicated in AD 80 and until the year AD 404 it was the site of battle between gladiators, fake naval battles, and other forms of entertainment. During the Middle Ages, stone was taken from it to be used in the construction of new buildings. The Colosseum is oval-shaped and could accommodate 50,000 people on four stories on wooden and marble benches. The Colosseum is 157 feet high, 510 feet wide and 620 feet long. A wall 15 feet high separated the spectators from the arena. It was made of brick and concrete with stone on the exterior. On the first three stories there are arches supported by columns. The fourth story was added at a later date for decorative purposes. Awnings were supported by poles on the fourth stories and protected the spectators from the elements. The Colosseum had 80 entrances, to of which were reserved for the emperor. A network of passages and rooms existed beneath the structure.

Another famous Roman building is the Pantheon. It was built by the emperor Hadrian in AD 126. The Pantheon was dedicated to all of the Roman gods. It was constructed from brick and concrete and is circular. It measures 142 in diameter and its dome shaped roof rises 142 feet. A rectangular porch extols from the front of the building. The porch has a triangular roof supported by eight Corinthian columns. The interior is lit by an opening called an oculus at the top of the dome. A large amount of the building is original. It later served as a Christian church from AD 609 to AD 1885. It then became a burial place for famous Italian heroes.                  

The Romans built arches called triumphal arches to celebrate victories and other events. Perhaps the most famous was the Arch of Constantine at Rome. It was guilt to mark a victory over Maxentius, the "usurper" in AD 312. It was constructed of 2nd Century pieces of sculpture but new were added also. The sculptures on the arch gave a narrative of the campaign against Maxentius. One detail from the arch is Constantine demonstrating his liberality. Another famous arch was on erected by Athenians of Greece in AD 130. Hadrian had it built for he saw himself as the new founder of the city. On one side of the arch was the inscription, "This is Athens, the ancient city of Theseus." On the other side is the inscription "This is the city of Hadrian and not of Theseus." This arch stands on a road by the temple of the Olympian Zeus. Another triumphal arch is the Arch of Galerius which celebrated his victory over the Persians. On this arch are typical scenes of military and religious life. Another great arch is the arch at Timgad which once marked the entrance to the original colonial foundation on the road leading to Lambaeis. The ancient Forum of Rome is home to the arch made in 203 to honor Septimius Severus and his sons Caracalla and Geta. It also shows scenes from Severus' campaign against the Parthians and Arabs. Another triumphal arch is the Arch of Saints which bears upon its frieze the commemorative inscription of C. Julius Rufus. He was priest of Rome and Augustus at an altar at Lugdunum. He contributed to the building of an amphitheater there.             

The Romans built majestic temples to honor their gods and past leaders. The earliest surviving example of a temple in Rome is the circular shaped one at the Forum Boarium. It is purely Greek in style and was built in the 2nd century BC. A similar shaped temple is located at Tivoli. It was built at around the same time too. Another early temple is the one at Perigueux dedicated to the goddess Vesunna. It was circular shaped also and constructed very early in the history of the Roman Republic. Lesser deities accordingly had smaller temples. An example of this is the temple of Fortuna Virilis, the deity of a remote harbor. Many temples became Christian churches in the Middle Ages. In addition to the Pantheon, the Temple of Antoninus and Fautina had this happen to them.                                                                                       

The Romans built amphitheaters of all sizes, but most of which employed great architecture. An early amphitheater was located in Italica. It was dedicated to Hadrian and could seat 25,000. Another large theater built by the Romans was the one at Augst. Amphitheaters changed as communities grew. This amphitheater was no exception. It was first very small but later enlarged to a capacity of 8000. Roman colonies soon had their own amphitheaters. Perhaps one of the best examples in Asia Minor is the theater of Aspendus in Pamphylia. It was built in the 2nd century AD and greatly illustrates the importance of these monuments to the Roman people. Surprising numbers of amphitheaters were located near harbors, one example is the great theater along the Aradiane Harbor at the city of Ephesus. Aphrodisias is home to another tremendous theater that later became a Byzantine fortress. Walls and a rectangular arena were added so gladiatorial shows could be held. The amphitheater at El-Djem was among the largest in the empire. As was common, it was built on the site of a similar structure in the early 3rd century.                                          

The Romans built baths in most towns as a place to bathe, relax, and socialize. These were located generally on the outskirts of the towns. The most famous one though, is at Bath in present day Britain. These baths were fed by Roman conduits. Baths were generally 8 meters in depth, as was the one at Bath. These baths brought prosperity to many Roman settlements, for the waters were thought to have medical properties. All peoples used these facilities. Recently some have been uncovered and it turns out that the waters are contaminated by bacteria.                                            

The Romans were masterful builders of aqueducts. An aqueduct is defined as an artificial channel through which water is conducted to the place where it is used. Some aqueducts are tunnels dug through the earth. Others are channels of water forced through suspended structures. Rome was one of the only ancient cities that was readily supplied with water. In the year AD 97, a ninth aqueduct was added to bring water to Rome. These nine aqueducts brought 85 million gallons of water a day to Rome from mountain springs. Five more aqueducts were added later.

Over 200 cities in the Roman Empire had aqueducts. One of these aqueducts was the Aqua Claudia which was constructed from AD 38 to AD 50. It was begun by Caligula and finished by Claudius. It carried water to Rome for a distance of 68 kilometers.                                                                                                           

 

One of the most famous Roman aqueducts is the one at Segovia in present day Spain. It brought water to Segovia from a source 16 kilometers away. This aqueduct in particular had the full cooperation of the citizens of this town. Another famous aqueduct is the one over the River Gard that delivered water to Nimes from a source near Uzes. The accuracy of the engineering of this aqueduct is very impressive. The water dropped only 17 meters over a distance of 50 kilometers, the length of the aqueduct. When aqueducts arrive at cities the water is collected in a basin. On the bottom of the circular basin were holes that led to pipes, these fed essential civil locations. Private users were connected to the basin by pipes on the sides of the basins.

Rome's Punic Wars enemy Carthage was conquered and then an aqueduct was constructed that conveyed water over 50 kilometers from a source near Zaghovan to Carthage. When water to be directed to a location was at a lower level than the place where it to the Romans needed to be directed found a way the to raise water up. They used waterwheels to lift the water up. The wheels themselves were powered by treadmills.                                                                                                              

Rome's mill architecture was also very genius. They used waterwheels to turn millstones and produce flour. One mill could produce enough flour to satisfy a population of 80,000.                                                                                                

Roman architecture forever shaped our modern architecture. Architecture in the Middle Ages was also influenced by it. Some of the world's most famous buildings were built by Rome or influenced by it.                                                

With knowledge borrowed from the Greeks, Rome made impressive architectural achievements, these were namely major attributes of buildings, colossal structures, and a legacy that would influence later buildings.                                                      

The Romans succeeded in building some of the most architecturally sound buildings of ancient times. They ideas were the forerunners of architectural practices today.

 

⇐ Предыдущая12345678910Следующая ⇒

Поделиться: