Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy

The most important theoretical principle of the traditional model of administration is Weber’s theory of bureaucracy. Throughout its long history, the traditional model followed Weber’s theory virtually to the letter, either implicitly, or explicitly, although it is important to note that bureaucracy existed as a practice prior to Weber setting it out as a theory.

In setting out a basis for his theory, Weber argued that there were three types of authority: the charismatic – the appeal of an extraordinary leader; the traditional – such as the authority of a tribal chief; and rational/legal authority. The latter was both rational and legal, naturally, as opposed to the other forms of authority, and formed the basis of his theory of bureaucracy.

Weber set out six principles for modern systems of bureaucracy:

 

The principle of fixed and official jurisdictional areas, which are generally ordered by rules, that is by laws or administrative regulations.

The principles of office hierarchy and of levels of graded authority mean a firmly ordered system of super- and sub-ordination in which there is a supervision of the lower offices by the higher ones.

The management of the modern office is based upon written documents (‘the files’) which are preserved. The body of officials actively engaged in ‘public’ office, along with the respective apparatus of material implements and the files, make up a bureau … In general, bureaucracy segregates official activity as something distinct from the sphere of private life … Public monies and equipment are divorced from the private property of the official.

Office management, at least all specialized office management – and management is distinctly modern – usually presupposes thorough and expert training.

When the office is fully developed, official activity demands the full working capacity of the official … Formerly, in all cases, the normal state of affairs was reversed: official business was discharged as a secondary activity.

The management of the office follows general rules, which are more or less stable, more or less exhaustive, and which can be learned. Knowledge of these rules represents a special technical learning which the officials possess. It involves jurisprudence, or administrative or business management.

 

The principles of bureaucracy have become so ingrained in society that these points seem obvious, but they did present a substantial advance on early administration. The main differences and advances of the Weberian system are best understood by comparison with earlier models of administration. The key contrast, the most important difference between Weber and previous models, is the replacement of personal administration with an impersonal system based on rules. An organization and its rules are more important than any individual within it. This is a very important point. Earlier administration was based on personal relationships – loyalty to a relative, patron, leader or party – and not to the system itself. At times the earlier model may have been more responsive politically, in that the administration was more clearly an arm of the politicians or the dominant classes favoured by appointments. But it was also often arbitrary, and arbitrary administration can be unjust. An impersonal system based on Weber’s principles removes arbitrariness completely – at least it does in the ideal case. The existence of the files, the belief in precedent and the basis in law mean that the same decision is always made in the same circumstances. Not only is this more efficient, but citizens, and those in the bureaucratic hierarchy, know where they stand.

The individual official occupies a key place in Weber’s theory. Office holding is considered a vocation, following examinations and a rigorous course of training. According to Weber, ‘entrance into an office is considered an acceptance of specific obligation of faithful management in return for a secure existence.’ He specified the position of the official in the following way:

The modern official always strives for and usually enjoys a distinct social esteem as compared with the governed.

The pure type of bureaucratic official is appointed by a superior authority. An official elected by the governed is not a purely bureaucratic figure.

Normally, the position of the official is held for life, at least in public bureaucracies.

Where legal guarantees against arbitrary dismissal or transfer are developed, they merely serve to guarantee a strictly objective discharge of specific office duties free from all personal considerations.

The official receives the regular pecuniary₂₃ compensation of a normally fixed salary and the old age security provided by a pension. The salary is not measured like a wage in terms of work done, but according to ‘status’, that is, according to the function (the ‘rank’) and, in addition, possibly, according to the length of service.

The official is set for a ‘career’ within the hierarchical order of the public service. He moves from the lower, less important, and lower paid to the higher positions.

 

These points follow logically from the six principles of bureaucracy. The official is to be part of an elite with status higher than that of ordinary citizens. Along with Northcote-Trevelyan, Weber’s theory required recruitment by merit, not by election or by patronage, into a position normally held for life in exchange for impartial service. Part of the lifetime and full-time career of the public servant is the principle of fixed salary and the prospect of advancement through the hierarchical structure.

The two principles – the model of bureaucracy and position of the official – had specific purposes. A formal, impersonal system offers ‘the optimum possibility for carrying through the principle of specialising functions according to purely objective considerations’. Decisions would and should be made according to ‘calculable rules’ and ‘without regard for persons’. The general aims were certainty, impersonality and efficiency. The idea was to create a system that was at the highest possible level of technical efficiency.

Weber’s idea that bureaucracy was the most efficient form of organization applies to all large undertakings. The formal model of bureaucracy is applicable to both the private and public sector, but there is little doubt it was embraced more readily and for longer in public administration.

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