Ecology: Some Problems of Environmental Pollution.

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Ecology: Some Problems of Environmental Pollution.

Учебное пособие по английскому языку

для студентов I и II курсов

Технических вузов

Пермь 2009

Рецензенты:

канд. пед. наук, доц. каф. ИЯЛиМК ПГТУ

И.В. Перлова;

канд. филол. наук, доц. Зав. каф. Иностранных языков Пермского филиала Нижегородской академии МВД России

И. А. Баринова

Ф. Р. Хабибрахманова

«Ecology: Some Problems of Environmental Pollution». Учебное пособие по английскому языку для студентов I и II курсов технических вузов. Перм. гос. техн. ун-т. Пермь, 2009. 107 с.

Предназначено для аудиторной и внеаудиторной работы студентов I и II курсов технических вузов. Представляет собой сборник текстов и статей по теме «Ecology: Some Problems of Environmental Pollution», отобранных на основе оригинальных английских и американских источников. Они адаптированы (сокращены), разбиты на шесть тематических разделов и сопровождаются специальными упражнениями на понимание содержания текстов и работу с новой лексикой. Каждый раздел содержит тематический глоссарий (Important terms) и перечень интересных фактов (Fast facts) для повышения мотивации студентов в изучении экологических проблем.

Данное учебное пособие рекомендовано для студентов технических вузов.

технический университет, 2009

Введение

Учебное пособие «Ecology: Some Problems of Environmental Pollution» представляет собой сборник текстов по различным экологическим проблемам, составленный на основе аутентичных материалов для обучения информативному иноязычному чтению будущих специалистов по техническим специальностям, а также включает в себя систему упражнений, направленных на понимание содержания текстового материала, отработку лексико-грамматического материала по теме и практического применения этого материла в коммуникативных ситуациях профессиональной сферы деятельности.

Проблемы защиты окружающей среды напрямую касаются любой технической специальности, поскольку основными источниками загрязнения являются промышленные предприятия, сельскохозяйственные и даже проектные организации. Поэтому тематическое соответствие проблем, представленных в текстах, техническим специальностям обусловливает наличие в них содержательной информации, понятной, интересной и полезной будущим специалистам, а также готовит будущих инженеров к решению как глобальных экологических проблем, так и к решению экологических задач отдельных промышленных предприятий и организаций.

Пособие состоит из шести разделов: «Introduction. History of Ecology as a Science in Brief» (Введение. Краткая история экологии как науки), «The Problems of Air Pollution» (Проблемы загрязнения воздуха), «The Problems of Water Pollution» (Проблемы загрязнения воды), «The Problems of Soil Pollution. Noise Pollution» (Проблемы загрязнения почвы. Шумовое загрязнение), «Some Problems of Information Pollution» (О некоторых проблемах информационного загрязнения) и «Environmental Organizations» (Организации по защите окружающей среды). Каждый раздел включает в себя ряд текстов соответствующей тематики, перечень ключевых слов (Important Terms), ряд интересных фактов по теме раздела(Fast Facts), а также специальные предтекстовые упражнения, направленные на прогнозирование содержания текста (What do you think…is?; What do you think the text tells us about? и др.), текстовые упражнения на формирование, закрепление и отработку лексических навыков студентов (Choose the key words from the texts to characterize…; Choose the words from the text to complete this summary of the text; Complete the following sentences according to the context и др.), на понимание содержания текста (Match these headings to paragraphs; Complete the table below with answers from the texts и др. ) и формирование навыков говорения (Can you think of any more solutions to…; Prove the statements…).

В процессе обучения информативному чтению на английском языке на основе предложенных материалов предполагается целенаправленное формирование у студентов следующих умений:

· определять основную мысль текста в процессе чтения;

· обобщать и группировать отдельные факты в смысловые части;

· выделять новые информационные единицы;

· усваивать новую информацию посредством выполнения специальных устных и письменных упражнений;

· фиксировать новую профессиональную информацию в виде выписок и перевода на родной язык;

· творчески перерабатывать полученную информацию, делая литературный перевод отдельных отрывков текстов в соответствии с нормами русского языка и профессионально-техническими особенностями (подбор русского эквивалента к английскому тексту);

· аргументировано доказывать или опровергать некоторые утверждения, данные в упражнениях на основе материалов текстов.

Ecology: Some Problems of Environmental Pollution.

Unit I. Introduction.

Text 5. Ecology and Evolution.

Ecology is closely allied with its sister discipline evolution. The two disciplines often appear together, such as in the title of one on the most highly cited journals in the field “Trends in Ecology and Evolution”. Ecology and evolution are scientifically connected because they both study hierarchy, networks, relations, and kinship among genes, cells, individuals, communities, species, and the biosphere. There is no sharp dichotomous boundary that separates the two disciplines and they differ more in their areas of applied focus than in their shared scientific philosophies on nature. Both disciplines find and explain unique properties and processes operating in different ways according the spatial or temporal scales being considered. Ecological theory is not necessarily invoked in evolutionary research, such as what role it played in the major transitions in the history of life. Evolution is concerned primarily with the nature of change through the guiding principals of natural selection, inheritance, and differential survival. While the boundary between ecology and evolution is not always clear, it is understood that ecology studies the abiotic and biotic factors that influence the evolutionary process.

Text 6. Ecological Crisis.

Generally, an ecological crisis occurs with the loss of adaptive capacity when the resilience of an environment or of a species or a population evolves in a way unfavourable to coping with perturbations that interfere with that ecosystem, landscape or species survival. It may be that the environment quality degrades compared to the species needs, after a change in an abiotic ecological factor (for example, an increase of temperature, less significant rainfalls). It may be that the environment becomes unfavourable for the survival of a species (or a population) due to an increased pressure of predation (for example overfishing). Lastly, it may be that the situation becomes unfavourable to the quality of life of the species (or the population) due to a rise in the number of individuals (overpopulation).

Ecological crises vary in length and severity, occurring within a few months or taking as long as a few million years. They can also be of natural or anthropic origin. They may relate to one unique species or to many species, as in an Extinction event. Lastly, an ecological crisis may be local (as an oil spill) or global (a rise in the sea level due to global warming).

According to its degree of endemism, a local crisis will have more or less significant consequences, from the death of many individuals to the total extinction of a species. Whatever its origin, disappearance of one or several species often will involve a rupture in the food chain, further impacting the survival of other species.

In the case of a global crisis, the consequences can be much more significant; some extinction events showed the disappearance of more than 90% of existing species at that time. However, it should be noted that the disappearance of certain species, such as the dinosaurs, by freeing an ecological niche, allowed the development and the diversification of the mammals. An ecological crisis thus paradoxically favoured biodiversity.

Sometimes, an ecological crisis can be a specific and reversible phenomenon at the ecosystem scale. But more generally, the crises impact will last. Indeed, it rather is a connected series of events, that occur till a final point. From this stage, no return to the previous stable state is possible, and a new stable state will be set up gradually.

Lastly, if an ecological crisis can cause extinction, it can also more simply reduce the quality of life of the remaining individuals. Thus, even if the diversity of the human population is sometimes considered threatened, few people envision human disappearance at short span. However, epidemic diseases, famines, impact on health of reduction of air quality, food crises, reduction of living space, accumulation of toxic or non degradable wastes, threats on keystone species (great apes, panda, whales) are also factors influencing the well-being of people.

Due to the increases in technology and a rapidly increasing population, humans have more influence on their own environment than any other ecosystem engineer.

After you read Texts 5 and 6. Answer these questions:

1. How are ecology and evolution connected?

2. Do you think there are some differences between ecology and evolution?

3. What are the reasons of occurring the ecological crisis problem?

4. What is the length of ecological crisis?

5. What spheres of environment does it cover?

6. What events can ecological crisis lead to?

7. Does this problem concern you personally? In what way?

Fast Facts

· Every ton of paper recycled saves 17 trees!

· The garbage in a landfill stays for about 30 years.

· Approximately only 10 percent of every landfill can be cleaned up.

· Each person throws away approximately four pounds of garbage every day.

· One bus carries as many people as 40 cars!

· More than 1/3 of all energy is used by people at home

· Most families throw away about 88 pounds of plastic every year

· We each use about 12, 000 gallons of water every year

· 1/3 of all water is used to flush the toilet.

· The 500 million automobiles on earth burn an average of 2 gallons of fuel a day.

· Each gallon of fuel releases 20 pounds of carbon dioxide into the air.

· Approximately 5 million tons of oil produced in the world each ear ends up in the ocean.

· The energy we save when we recycle one glass bottle is enough to light a traditional light bulb for four hours

· For every 2000 pounds of paper (1 ton) recycled, we save 7, 000 gallons of water free from chemicals.

· Recycled paper requires 64% less energy than making paper from virgin wood pulp, and can save many trees

· The amount of wood and paper we throw away is enough to heat 50 million homes for 20 years

· Earth is 2/3 water. But all the fresh water streams only represent one hundredth of one percent.

· 14 billion pounds of trash is dumped into the ocean every year

· It takes 90% less energy to recycle aluminum cans than to make new ones

· 5 billion aluminum cans are used each year

· 84 percent of all household waste can be recycled.

· Computers pose an environmental threat because much of the material that makes them up is hazardous. A typical monitor contains 4-5 pounds of lead.

· Ivory comes from dead elephants, its best not to buy it.

· Fur coats often come from endangered animals, it's best not to buy them.

· One gallon of motor oil can contaminate up to 2 million gallons of water. So dispose of properly!

· Here is an example of the water we use everyday: 3-7 gallons for toilet, 25-30 gallons for tub, 50-70 gallons for a 10 minute shower, 1 washing machine load uses 25-40 gallons, 1 dishwasher load uses 9-12 gallons

· Here is an example of how long it takes some things take to break down: plastics take 500 years, aluminum cans take 500 years, organic materials, take 6 months, cotton, rags, paper take 6 months.

Important Terms

A nthropogenic – Human-induced or human-caused, derived from the Greek root anthropos meaning " man."

B iological diversity (biodiversity) – The variety of different living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the variety of different ecosystems that they form. This includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems, and the genetic variability of each species.

B iological resources – Includes genetic resources, organisms or parts thereof, populations, or any other biotic component of ecosystems with actual or potential use or value for humanity.

B iomass – The total amount of living organisms in a given area.

B iosphere – The global ecosystem; that part of the earth and atmosphere capable of supporting living organisms.

B y-Product – A useful and marketable product or service that is not the primary product or service being produced.

C limate change – The slow variations of climatic characteristics over time at a given place. Usually refers to the change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is, in addition to natural climate variability, observed over comparable periods.

C limate – The long term average condition of the weather in a given area.

C lassification – Classification attributes are environmental interventions/aspects listed in an environmental inventory/environmental effects register according to environmental impact categories.

C onservation – The long-term protection and sustainable management of natural resources in accordance with principles that ensure long-term economic and social benefits.

C o-Product – A marketable by-product from a process that can technically not be avoided. This includes materials that may be traditionally defined as waste such as industrial scrap that is subsequently used as a raw material in a different manufacturing process.

C ontaminant – Any biological, chemical, physical or radiological substance that has an negative effect on air, soil or water.

D amage – A deterioration in the quality of the environment not directly attributable to depletion or pollution.

D eforestation – The felling of trees, usually for commercial purposes.

D esertification – Land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.

D epletion – The result of the extraction of abiotic resources (non-renewable) from the environment or the extraction of biotic resources (renewable) faster than they can be renewed.

E cosphere – Refers to the entire global ecosystem that comprises atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere as inseparable components.

E cosystem – A dynamic and complex system of plant, animal and microorganism communities and their non-living environment all interacting as a functional unit within a defined physical location. The term may be applied to a unit as large as the entire ecosphere, but usually refers to a division thereof.

E mission – One or more substances released to the water, air or soil in the natural environment.

E ndangered species – A species threatened with extinction.

E nvironment – Surroundings in which an organization operates, including air, water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna, humans, and their interrelations. This definition extends the view from a company focus to the global system.

E nvironmental Aspects – Elements of an organization's activities, products or services which can interact with the environment (ISO 14004). A significant environmental aspect is an environmental aspect which has or can have a significant environmental impact.

E nvironmental Effect – Any direct or indirect impingement of activities, products and services of an organization upon the environment, whether adverse or beneficial. An environmental effect is the consequence of an environmental intervention in an environmental system.

E nvironmental Intervention – Exchange between the economy and the environment including resource extraction, emissions to the air, water, or soil, and aspects of land use. If resource extraction is excluded, the term used in this case is environmental release.

E nvironmental Inventory – An environmental inventory identifies and quantifies - where appropriate - all environmental aspects of an organization's activities, products and services.

E nvironmental Problem – An environmental problem is a description of a known process within the environment or a state of the environment which has adverse effects on the sustainability of the environment including society. They include resource consumption and environmental impacts.

E utrophication – Over-enrichment of a water body with nutrients, resulting in excessive growth of organisms and depletion of oxygen concentration.

E xtinct species – A species that no longer survives anywhere in the world.

F ossil fuels – Coal, oil, petroleum, and natural gas and other hydrocarbons are called fossil fuels because they are made of fossilized, carbon-rich plant and animal remains.

G lobal Warming – Strictly speaking, global warming and global cooling refer to the natural warming and cooling trends that the Earth has experienced all through its history. However, the term usually refers to the gradual rise in the Earth's temperatures that could result from the accumulated gases that are trapped in the atmosphere.

G reenhouse effect – A warming of the Earth's atmosphere caused by the presence in the atmosphere of certain heat-trapping gases (e.g., water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane). These gases absorb radiation emitted by the Earth, thereby retarding the loss of energy from the system to space.

G reenhouse gases – Those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and artificial, that absorb and reemit infrared radiation and that are responsible for global warming. The most potent greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, is rapidly accumulating in the atmosphere due to human activities.

H azardous waste – Refuse that could present dangers through the contamination and pollution of the environment. It requires special disposal techniques to make it harmless or less dangerous.

I ndustrial Revolution – The Industrial Revolution began in the early 1800's and heralded the birth of the " modern times." After the Industrial Revolution, work that was done by hand was accomplished through the use of machines. It brought on the advent of the steam engine, cotton gin, sewing machine, paper, telegraph, and railroad and it saw the beginnings of many of our present industries.

N atural resource – (e.g., tree biomass, fresh water, fish) whose supply can essentially never be exhausted, usually because it is continuously produced.

N on-renewable resources – Natural resources that are not naturally replenished once they have been harvested. Non-renewable resources can be used up completely or else used up to such a degree that it is economically impractical to obtain any more of them. Fossil fuels and metal ores are examples of non-renewable resources.

P ollution – Residual discharges of emissions to the air or water following application of emission control devices (EPA 1993b).

P revention of Pollution – The use of processes, practices, methods or products that avoid, reduce or control pollution. These may include recycling, treatment, process changes, control mechanisms, efficient use of resources and material substitution.

Recycling – The process of re-using material for the production of new goods or services on the same quality level. If the quality of the goods and services produced with recycled material is lower, then the process is known as downcycling.

Resources – Materials found in the environment that can be extracted from the environment in an economic process. There are abiotic resources (non-renewable) and biotic resources (renewable).

R euse – The additional use of a component, part, or product after it has been removed from a clearly defined service cycle. Reuse does not include reformation. However, cleaning, repair, or refurbishing may be done between uses.

S ystem – A collection of operations that perform a desired function.

S ustainable development – Development that ensures that the use of resources and the environment today does not compromise their use in the future.

T oxic – Harmful to living organisms.

U ltraviolet Radiation (UV) – Electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of 200 to 400 nanometres. (Also known as ultraviolet light).

W aste – An output with no marketable value that is discharged to the environment. Normally the term " waste" refers to solid or liquid materials.

The Background in Brief.

Air is the ocean we breathe. Air supplies us with oxygen which is essential for our bodies to live. Air is 99.9% nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and inert gases. Human activities can release substances into the air, some of which can cause problems for humans, plants, and animals.

Humans probably first experienced harm from air pollution when they built fires in poorly ventilated caves. Since then we have gone on to pollute more of the earth's surface. Until recently, environmental pollution problems have been local and minor because of the Earth's own ability to absorb and purify minor quantities of pollutants. The industrialization of society, the introduction of motorized vehicles, and the explosion of the population, are factors contributing toward the growing air pollution problem. At this time it is urgent that we find methods to clean up the air.

The primary air pollutants found in most urban areas are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter (both solid and liquid). These pollutants are dispersed throughout the world's atmosphere in concentrations high enough to gradually cause serious health problems. Serious health problems can occur quickly when air pollutants are concentrated, such as when massive injections of sulfur dioxide and suspended particulate matter are emitted by a large volcanic eruption.

While man-made air pollution does present health hazards, natural sources of air pollution can be equally dangerous at times. These sources include dust picked up by wind erosion, the emission of methane by livestock, and smoke from wildfires. Volcanic eruptions are perhaps the largest single source of air pollution, natural or man-made, that humans have ever dealt with. These can produce clouds of abrasive volcanic ash and other harmful substances such as chlorine and sulfur.

Air pollution results from a variety of causes, not all of which are within human control. Dust storms in desert areas and smoke from forest fires and grass fires contribute to chemical and particulate pollution of the air. The source of pollution may be in one country but the impact of pollution may be felt elsewhere. The discovery of pesticides in Antarctica, where they have never been used, suggests the extent to which aerial transport can carry pollutants from one place to another. Probably the most important natural source of air pollution is volcanic activity, which at times pours great amounts of ash and toxic fumes into the atmosphere.

Most notably, the eruption of Indonesia’s Mount Tambora in 1815 sent such a huge amount of noxious gases and particulate matter into the atmosphere, that much solar energy was effectively blocked from reaching the earth’s surface. As a result, widespread famines were suffered worldwide in 1816. Brown and red snows were also seen in Europe, due to the presence of volcanic ash in the atmosphere. A killing frost in July of 1816 also led to massive crop failures in the northeastern United States, leading to colloquial references to 1816 as “The Year Without a Summer, ” and “Eighteen Hundred And Froze To Death.”

The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the natural environment, into the atmosphere. Thus, air pollution can be defined as any harmful material that is present in the earth’s atmosphere. It is aggravated because of four developments: increasing traffic, growing cities, rapid economic development, and industrialization. The Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 19th century saw the beginning of air pollution as we know it today, which has gradually become a global problem.

The causes of air pollution, therefore, are many and highly varied. Some sources are natural, such as volcanism or forest fires started by lightning, while others are brought about by human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels. While the earth does have built-in mechanisms for getting rid of air pollution, it is usually better for all living things to reduce the amount of pollutants released into the air to begin with.

Some other sources of air pollution are man-made. The burning of petroleum products is a very common cause of air pollution, especially in metropolitan areas. This pollution comes from chemical factors present when these fuels combust. When hydrocarbons such as gasoline are burned, they produce carbon dioxide and water vapor. Incomplete combustion leads to carbon monoxide also being created as a byproduct.

After you read Text 1

· Complete the following sentences according to the context:

1. The first negative impact of air pollution humans got when they ……………

2. The primary air pollutants of urban areas are dispersed ………. in …………

3. Natural sources of air pollution include ……………………………………...

4. The source of pollution may be in one country but …………………………..

5. Air pollution is the ………………….. that cause ……………………………

6. Air pollution is aggravated because of ……………………………………….

As you read Text 2

· Choose the words from the text to complete this summary of the text.

Pollution needs to be considered … and … our homes, offices, and schools, therefore it is divided into so called … and … air pollution.

Text 5. Smog.

The term smog was first used in 1905 by Dr H A Des Voeux to describe the conditions of fog that had soot or smoke in it. Smog is a combination of various gases with water vapour and dust. A large part of the gases that form smog is produced when fuels are burnt. Smog forms when heat and sunlight react with these gases and fine particles in the air. Smog can affect outlying suburbs and rural areas as well as big cities. Its occurrences are often linked to heavy traffic, high temperatures, and calm winds. During the winter, wind speeds are low and cause the smoke and fog to stagnate; hence pollution levels can increase near ground level. This keeps the pollution close to the ground, right where people are breathing. It hampers visibility and harms the environment. Heavy smog is greatly decreases ultraviolet radiation. In fact, in the early part of the 20th century, heavy smog in some parts of Europe resulted in a decrease in the production of natural vitamin D leading to a rise in the cases of rickets. Smog causes a misty haze similar to fog, but very different in composition. In fact the word smog has been coined from a combination of the words fog and smoke. Smog refers to hazy air that causes difficult breathing conditions.

The most harmful components of smog are ground-level ozone and fine airborne particles. Ground-level ozone forms when pollutants released from gasoline and diesel-powered vehicles and oil-based solvents react with heat and sunlight. It is harmful to humans, animals, and plants.

The industrial revolution in the 19th century saw the beginning of air pollution in Europe on a large scale and the presence of smog mainly in Britain. The industries and the households relied heavily on coal for heating and cooking. Due to the burning of coal for heat during the winter months, emissions of smoke and sulphur dioxide were much greater in urban areas than they were during the summer months. Smoke particles trapped in the fog gave it a yellow/black colour and this smog often settled over cities for many days.

The effects of smog on human health were evident, particularly when smog persisted for several days. Many people suffered respiratory problems and increased deaths were recorded, notably those relating to bronchial causes. A haze of dense harmful smog would often cover the city of London. The first smog-related deaths were recorded in London in 1873, when it killed 500 people. In 1880, the toll was 2000. London had one of its worst experiences with smog in December 1892. It lasted for three days and resulted in about 1000 deaths. London became quite notorious for its smog. By the end of the 19th century, many people visited London to see the fog. Despite gradual improvements in air quality during the 20th century, another major smog occurred in London in December 1952.

Early in December 1952, a cold fog descended upon London. Because of the cold, Londoners began to burn more coal than usual. The resulting air pollution was trapped by the inversion layer formed by the dense mass of cold air. Concentrations of pollutants, coal smoke in particular, built up dramatically. The problem was made worse by use of low-quality, high-sulphur coal for home heating in London in order to permit export of higher-quality coal, because of the country's tenuous postwar economic situation. The " fog", or smog, was so thick that driving became difficult or impossible. The extreme reduction in visibility was accompanied by an increase in criminal activity as well as transportation delays and a virtual shut down of the city. During the 4 day period of fog, at least 4000 people died as a direct result of the weather. In response to the Great London Smog, the government passed its first Clean Air Act in 1956, which aimed to control domestic sources of smoke pollution by introducing smokeless zones. In addition, the introduction of cleaner coals led to a reduction in sulphur dioxide pollution.

Relatively little was done to control any type of pollution or to promote environmental protection until the middle of the 20th century. Today, smoke and sulphur dioxide pollution in cities is much lower than in the past, as a result of legislation to control pollution emissions and cleaner emission technology.

After you read Text 4 and 5. Look at the texts and try to find:

1. words which describe acid rain causes;

2. adjectives which describe effects of smog;

3. verbs which describe acid rain, ozone depletion and smog origin;

4. nouns which explain the matter of the ozone depletion problem.

As you read Texts 6 and 7

· What, in your opinion, are the most dangerous consequences of these problems?

· Text 6 mentions the greenhouse effect discovery. Who managed this? When?

· What do the climate model projections indicate?

· Find out some ways of solving the fly ash problem (according to Text 7).

Text 7. Flyash.

With the boom in population and industrial growth, the need for power has increased manifold. Nearly 73% of India’s total installed power generation capacity is thermal, of which 90% is coal-based generation, with diesel, wind, gas, and steam making up the rest. Thermal power generation through coal combustion produces minute particles of ash that causes serious environmental problems.

Commonly known as fly ash, these ash particles consist of silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, and magnesium and toxic heavy metals like lead, arsenic, cobalt, and copper.

The 80-odd utility thermal power stations in India use bituminous coal and produce large quantities of fly ash. According to specialists, up to 150 million tonnes of fly ash were produced in India in the year 2000, primarily by thermal power plants and, to a lesser extent, by cement and steel plants and railways. This poses problems in the form of land use, health hazards, and environmental dangers. Both in disposal and in utilization utmost care has to be taken to safeguard the interest of human life, wild life, and such other considerations.

The prevalent practice is to dump fly ash on wastelands, and this has lain to waste thousands of hectares all over the country. To prevent the fly ash from getting airborne, the dumping sites have to be constantly kept wet by sprinkling water over the area. The coal industry in USA spends millions of dollars on lining fly ash dumping grounds. But in India, these sites are not lined and it leads to seepage, contaminating groundwater and soil. It lowers soil fertility and contaminates surface and ground water as it can leach into the subsoil. When fly ash gets into the natural draining system, it results in siltation and clogs the system. Fly ash interferes with the process of photosynthesis of aquatic plants and thus disturbs the food chain. Besides, fly ash corrodes exposed metallic structures in its vicinity.

Fly ash management has taken considerable strides over the past few years. Researches have been attempting to convert this waste into wealth by exploring viable avenues for fly ash management. Fly ash is oxide-rich and can be used as the raw material for different industries.

Today, fly ash bricks can be used as a building material. The American Embassy in India has used fly ash bricks in some of its recent construction. Use of fly ash as a part replacement of cement in mortar and concrete has started with the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi taking the lead. Use of fly ash in the construction of roads and embankments has been successfully demonstrated in the country and it is gaining acceptance. The NTPC (National Thermal Power Corporation) is setting up two fly ash brick manufacturing plants at Badarpur and Dadri near Delhi.

Researchers have proven that fly ash dumps can be reclaimed by suitable addition of organic matter and symbiotic fungi, making it commercially viable for activities like floriculture and silviculture. The researchers have successfully reclaimed a part of an ash pond at the Badarpur Thermal Power Station by introducing a mycorrhizal fungi-based organic bio-fertilizer. It improves the plant's water and nutrient uptake, helps in the development of roots and soil-binding, protects the plants from soil-borne diseases, and detoxifies contaminated soils. This helps in keeping both air and water pollution under control. It also helps revive wastelands and saves millions of litres of precious water from going down the fly ash slurries.

After you read Text 6 and 7

· Complete the following sentences according to the context:

1. An increase in global temperature will cause ………………………………..

2. The defining characteristic of the greenhouse effect is ………………………

3. ……………………. cause such a serious environmental problem as fly ash.

4. Fly ash dumps can be reclaimed by ………………………………………….

5. Carbon dioxide amount increase acts like a ………………………………….

Before you read Texts 8 and 9

· What are air pollution effects you feel almost every day?

· What do you think is necessary to do to reduce air pollution?

As you read Texts 8 and 9. Read these questions and choose the best answer:

1. According to the text 8 the extent of air pollution harm on a man depends on

A the air pollution control technologies and land use planning;

B the duration of exposure and the concentration of the chemicals.

2. The term exposure in the text 8 means:

A the state of being in a place or situation where there is no protection from something harmful;

B the state of having the true facts about somebody or something told after they have been hidden because they are bad.

3. Land use planning is a very important part of social policy, because:

A it reduces pollution from mobile sources and increases fuel efficiency;

B it ensures that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population as well as to protect the environment.

Text 8. Health Effects.

Air pollution can affect our health in many ways with both short-term and long-term effects. Different groups of individuals are affected by air pollution in different ways. Some individuals are much more sensitive to pollutants than are others. Young children and elderly people often suffer more from the effects of air pollution. People with health problems such as asthma, heart and lung disease may also suffer more when the air is polluted. The extent to which an individual is harmed by air pollution usually depends on the total exposure to the damaging chemicals, i.e., the duration of exposure and the concentration of the chemicals must be taken into account.

Examples of short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. Other symptoms can include headaches, nausea, and allergic reactions. Short-term air pollution can aggravate the medical conditions of individuals with asthma and emphysema. In the great " Smog Disaster" in London in 1952, four thousand people died in a few days due to the high concentrations of pollution.

Long-term health effects can include chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys. Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of growing children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditions in the elderly. It is estimated that half a million people die prematurely every year in the United States as a result of smoking cigarettes.

The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly attributable to air pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution. " Epidemiological studies suggest that more than 500, 000 Americans die each year from cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing fine particle air pollution." A study by the University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between pneumonia related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles. Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollution than to automobile accidents. Published in 2005 suggests that 310, 000 Europeans die from air pollution annually. Direct causes of air pollution related deaths include aggravated asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies.

Effects on children. Cities around the world with high exposure to air pollutants have the possibility of children living within them to develop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections as well as a low initial birth rate. Research by the World Health Organization shows there is the greatest concentration of particulate matter particles in countries with low economic world power and high poverty and population rates. Examples of these countries include Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia, and Indonesia. The Clean Air Act was passed in 1970, however in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in areas that did not meet at least one of the “criteria pollutants” laid out in the 1997 National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Those pollutants included: ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Because children are outdoors more and have higher minute ventilation they are more susceptible to the dangers of air pollution.

Important Terms

A batement – The reduction or elimination of pollution.

A cid Rain – Rain which is especially acidic. Principal components of acid rain typically include nitric and sulfuric acid. These may be formed by the combination of nitrogen and sulfur oxides with water vapor in the atmosphere.

A cute Exposure – One or a series of short-term exposures generally lasting less than 24 hours.

A cute Health Effect – A health effect that occurs over a relatively short period of time (e.g., minutes or hours). The term is used to describe brief exposures and effects which appear promptly after exposure.

A erosol – Particles of solid or liquid matter that can remain suspended in air from a few minutes to many months depending on the particle size and weight.

A fterburner – An air pollution abatement device that removes undesirable organic gases through incineration.

A gricultural Burning – The intentional use of fire for vegetation management in areas such as agricultural fields, orchards, rangelands, and forests.

A ir – So called " pure" air is a mixture of gases containing about 78 percent nitrogen; 21 percent oxygen; less than 1 percent of carbon dioxide, argon, and other gases; and varying amounts of water vapor. See also ambient air.

A ir Basin – A land area with generally similar meteorological and geographic conditions throughout. To the extent possible, air basin boundaries are defined along political boundary lines and include both the source and receptor areas.

A ir Monitoring – Sampling for and measuring of pollutants present in the atmosphere.

A ir Pollutants – Amounts of foreign and/or natural substances occurring in the atmosphere that may result in adverse effects to humans, animals, vegetation, and/or materials.

A ir Toxics – A generic term referring to a harmful chemical or group of chemicals in the air. Substances that are especially harmful to health.

A lternative Fuels – Fuels such as methanol, ethanol, natural gas, and liquid petroleum gas that are cleaner burning. These fuels may be used in place of less clean fuels for powering motor vehicles.

A mbient Air – The air occurring at a particular time and place outside of structures. Often used interchangeably with " outdoor air."

A mmonia (NH3) – A pungent colorless gaseous compound of nitrogen and hydrogen that is very soluble in water and can easily be condensed into a liquid by cold and pressure.

A sbestos – A mineral fiber that can pollute air or water and cause cancer or asbestosis when inhaled. The U.S. EPA has banned or severely restricted its use in manufacturing and construction and the ARB has imposed limits on the amount of asbestos in serpentine rock that is used for surfacing applications. For more information, please visit our website.

A sthma – A chronic inflammatory disorder of the lungs characterized by wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and cough.

B aghouse – An air pollution control device that traps particulates by forcing gas streams through large permeable bags usually made of glass fibers. For more information, please go tou our baghouse training website.

B iogenic Source – Biological sources such as plants and animals that emit air pollutants such as volatile organic compounds. Examples of biogenic sources include animal management operations, and oak and pine tree forests.

C ancer – A group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled invasive growth of body cells leading to the formation of malignant tumors that tend to grow rapidly and spread (i.e., metastasize).

C arbon Dioxide (CO2) – A colorless, odorless gas that occurs naturally in the Earth's atmosphere. Significant quantities are also emitted into the air by fossil fuel combustion.

C arbon Monoxide (CO) – A colorless, odorless gas resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels. CO interferes with the blood's ability to carry oxygen to the body's tissues and results in numerous adverse health effects. Over 80 percent of the CO emitted in urban areas is contributed by motor vehicles. CO is a criteria air pollutant.

C arcinogen – A cancer-causing substance. (See also cancer.)

C hlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – Any of a number of substances consisting of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon. CFCs are used for refrigeration, foam packaging, solvents, and propellants.

C hronic Health Effect – A health effect that occurs over a relatively long period of time (e.g., months or years). (See also acute health effect.)

C leaner-Burning Gasoline – Gasoline fuel that results in reduced emissions of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, reactive organic gases, and particulate matter, in addition to toxic substances such as benzene and 1, 3-butadiene.

C ombustion – The act or instance of burning some type of fuel such as gasoline to produce energy. Combustion is typically the process that powers automobile engines and power plant generators.

C onsumer Products – Products such as hairspray, detergents, cleaning compounds, polishes, lawn and garden products, personal care products, and automotive specialty products which are part of our everyday lives and, through consumer use, may produce volatile organic air emissions which contribute to air pollution. Dust – Solid particulate matter that can become airborne.

E mission Factor – For stationary sources, the relationship between the amount of pollution produced and the amount of raw material processed or burned. For mobile sources, the relationship between the amount of pollution produced and the number of vehicle miles traveled. By using the emission factor of a pollutant and specific data regarding quantities of materials used by a given source, it is possible to compute emissions for the source. This approach is used in preparing an emissions inventory.

E mission Inventory – An estimate of the amount of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere from major mobile, stationary, area-wide, and natural source categories over a specific period of time such as a day or a year. For more information, please view our emissions inventory website.

E mission Standard – The maximum amount of a pollutant that is allowed to be discharged from a polluting source such as an automobile or smoke stack.

E nvironmental Tobacco Smoke – Primarily a combination of sidestream smoke from the burning end of a cigarette, pipe or cigar, and exhaled mainstream smoke from the smoker. Other components include smoke emitted at the mouthpiece during puff drawing.

E vaporative Emissions – Emissions from evaporating gasoline, which can occur during vehicle refueling, vehicle operation, and even when the vehicle is parked. Evaporative emissions can account for two-thirds of the hydrocarbon emissions from gasoline-fueled vehicles on hot summer days.

E xceedance – A measured level of an air pollutant higher than the national or state ambient air quality standards.

E xposure – The concentration of the pollutant in the air multiplied by the population exposed to that concentration over a specified time period.

E xposure Assessment – Measurement or estimation of the magnitude, frequency, duration and route of exposure to a substance for the populations of interest.

F ly Ash – Air-borne solid particles that result from the burning of coal and other solid fuel.

F ossil Fuels – Fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas; so-called because they are the remains of ancient plant and animal life.

F ume – Solid particles under 1 micron in diameter formed as vapors condense, or as chemical reactions take place.

G lobal Warming – An increase in the temperature of the Earth's troposphere. Global warming has occurred in the past as a result of natural influences, but the term is most often used to refer to the warming predicted by computer models to occur as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases.

G reenhouse Effect – The warming effect of the Earth's atmosphere. Light energy from the sun which passes through the Earth's atmosphere is absorbed by the Earth's surface and re-radiated into the atmosphere as heat energy. The heat energy is then trapped by the atmosphere, creating a situation similar to that which occurs in a car with its windows rolled up. A number of scientists believe that the emission of CO2 and other gases into the atmosphere may increase the greenhouse effect and contribute to global warming.

G reenhouse Gases – Atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxide, ozone, and water vapor that slow the passage of re-radiated heat through the Earth’s atmosphere.

H azardous Air Pollutant (HAP) – An air pollutant listed under section 112 (b) of the federal Clean Air Act as particularly hazardous to health. Emission sources of hazardous air pollutants are identified by U.S. EPA, and emission standards are set accordingly

H aze (Hazy) – A phenomenon that results in reduced visibility due to the scattering of light caused by aerosols. Haze is caused in large part by man-made air pollutants.

H ealth-Based Standard (Primary Standard) – A dosage of air pollution scientifically determined to protect against human health effects such as asthma, emphysema, and cancer.

I ncineration – The act of burning a material to ashes.

I ndirect Source – Any facility, building, structure, or installation, or combination thereof, which generates or attracts mobile source activity that results in emissions of any pollutant (or precursor) for which there is a state ambient air quality standard. Examples of indirect sources include employment sites, shopping centers, sports facilities, housing developments, airports, commercial and industrial development, and parking lots and garages.

I ndoor Air Pollution – Air pollutants that occur within buildings or other enclosed spaces, as opposed to those occurring in outdoor, or ambient air. Some examples of indoor air pollutants are nitrogen oxides, smoke, asbestos, formaldehyde, and carbon monoxide.

I ndustrial Source – Any of a large number of sources, such as manufacturing operations, oil and gas refineries, food processing plants, and energy generating facilities, that emit substances into the atmosphere.

I ntegrated Sampling Device – An air sampling device that allows estimation of air quality components over a period of time through laboratory analysis of the sampler's medium.

I nternal Combustion Engine – An engine in which both the heat energy and the ensuing mechanical energy are produced inside the engine. Includes gas turbines, spark ignition gas, and compression ignition diesel engines.

I nversion – A layer of warm air in the atmosphere that prevents the rise of cooling air and traps pollutants beneath it.

M ajor Source – A stationary facility that emits a regulated pollutant in an amount exceeding the threshold level depending on the location of the facility and attainment with regard to air quality status.

M ortality – Death rate.

N atural Sources – Non-manmade emission sources, including biological and geological sources, wildfires, and windblown dust.

N itric Oxide (NO) – Precursor of ozone, NO2, and nitrate; nitric oxide is usually emitted from combustion processes. Nitric oxide is converted to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the atmosphere, and then becomes involved in the photochemical processes and / or particulate formation.

N on-Industrial Source – Any of a large number of sources -- such as mobile, area-wide, indirect, and natural sources -- which emit substances into the atmosphere.

N on-Point Sources – Diffuse pollution sources that are not recognized to have a single point of origin.

O rganic Compounds – A large group of chemical compounds containing mainly carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. All living organisms are made up of organic compounds.

O xidant – A substance that brings about oxidation in other substances. Oxidizing agents (oxidants) contain atoms that have suffered electron loss. In oxidizing other substances, these atoms gain electrons. Ozone, which is a primary component of smog, is an example of an oxidant.

O zone – A strong smelling, pale blue, reactive toxic chemical gas consisting of three oxygen atoms. It is a product of the photochemical process involving the sun's energy and ozone precursors, such as hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen. Ozone exists in the upper atmosphere ozone layer (stratospheric ozone) as well as at the Earth's surface in the troposphere (ozone). Ozone in the troposphere causes numerous adverse health effects and is a criteria air pollutant. It is a major component of smog.

O zone Depletion – The reduction in the stratospheric ozone layer. Stratospheric ozone shields the Earth from ultraviolet radiation. The breakdown of certain chlorine and / or bromine-containing compounds that catalytically destroy ozone molecules in the stratosphere can cause a reduction in the ozone layer.

P articulate Matter (PM) – Any material, except pure water, that exists in the solid or liquid state in the atmosphere. The size of particulate matter can vary from coarse, wind-blown dust particles to fine particle combustion products.

P oint Sources – Specific points of origin where pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere such as factory smokestacks.

P ollution Prevention – The use of materials, processes, or practices to reduce, minimize, or eliminate the creation of pollutants or wastes. It includes practices that reduce the use of toxic or hazardous materials, energy, water, and/or other resources. For more information, please go to our pollution prevention program website.

P rescribed Burning – The planned application of fire to vegetation to achieve any specific objective on lands selected in advance of that application. In California, prescribed burning is governed under the Agricultural Burning Guidelines.

S mog – A combination of smoke and other particulates, ozone, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and other chemically reactive compounds which, under certain conditions of weather and sunlight, may result in a murky brown haze that causes adverse health effects.

S moke – A form of air pollution consisting primarily of particulate matter (i.e., particles released by combustion). Other components of smoke include gaseous air pollutants such as hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and carbon monoxide. Sources of smoke may include fossil fuel combustion, agricultural burning, and other combustion processes.

S oot – Very fine carbon particles that have a black appearance when emitted into the air.

S ource – Any place or object from which air pollutants are released. Sources that are fixed in space are stationary sources and sources that move are mobile sources.

S tationary Sources – Non-mobile sources such as power plants, refineries, and manufacturing facilities which emit air pollutants.

S torage Tank – Any stationary container, reservoir, or tank, used for storage of liquids.

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