Warehousing and documentation

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1) Warehouses are buildings where goods are stored until they are needed. Chain stores have central depots where store goods until they are delivered to the local shops; factories have warehouses where they keep parts for products which they make; goods have to wait in warehouses at the docks until they can go onto ships. Today many warehouses are controlled by the computers and some are completely automatic, with conveyors, electric ‘eyes’ and packing machines which do the work of many men.

2) Even in the modern world the transport of goods, often over long distances and from country to country, can be a big risk. Will the goods arrive in the right place at the right time? Has the buyer received the goods which he ordered? Will the buyer pay for the foods when he receives them? Will the transporter (the railway or the shipping company, for example) deliver the foods safely? A lot of documentation is necessary if the answer to these and other questions is to be ‘yes’. This documentation is now more or less standardized, however.

Упражнение № 7. Выпишите из первого абзаца глагол “to be” в разных функциях. Определите их.

Упражнение № 8. Прочитайте второй абзац, ответьте на вопрос:

Is the transport of goods still a big risk in the modern world?

Вариант IV

Упражнение № 1. Перепишите предложения. Переведите их, учитывая особенности перевода бессоюзных придаточных. Подчеркните придаточное предложение.

1) Demand shows the amounts of products consumers will buy at various possible price.

2) We know the commercial banks will give credit card to people who, they think, will be good customers.

Упражнение № 2. Перепишите предложения. Подчеркните в них независимый причастный оборот. Предложения переведите, обращая внимание на особенности перевода указанной конструкции.

1) Resources being not equally productive in all possible uses, the shifting of resources from one use to another increases their cost.

2) The Federal government uses all practical means to promote free competitive enterprises, all the possibilities of full employment being created too.

Упражнение № 3. Перепишите предложения. Переведите их, подчеркните глаголы “to have” и “to be” и определите их функцию в предложении.

1) Creditors are firms who have supplied goods to the company, but have not yet received any payment.

2) In order to use a dispenser, the customers are to have a special card.

3) If you are buying some expensive items, you may have a loan.

Упражнение № 4. Перепишите предложения. Переведите их, учитывая особенности перевода глаголов “should” и “would”.

1) We should be glad to fulfill your order if you confirmed it by a special letter.

2) It is important that delivery should be guaranteed within 3 weeks of receiving instructions.

3) It would be better for you to address another manufacturer.

4) You should require immediate supply of these products.

Упражнение № 5. Перепишите предложения. Переведите их, обращая внимание на значения предлогов, союзов, наречий.

1) As this has not been settled, let us discuss our method of payment.

2) Careful wording (формулировка) is necessary in a letter of reply as in all other business letters.

3) Many thanks for your offer of 3 March which contains both catalogues and samples of your product, but we think your articles are too highly priced for our market.

4) Both companies took part in the competition.

Упражнение № 6. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.

Credit

1) One of the functions of the commercial banks is to provide credit in the form of overdrafts, loans or credit cards. To take on overdraft means to take out more money that the customer has in his account up to a certain limit agreed with the bank. He has to pay the money back whenever requested by the bank, and he also has to pay a relatively high rate of interest whenever he is overdrawn. For this reason, an overdraft is not the best option for long-term borrowing.

2) A loan is cheaper if a large amount of money has to be borrowed over a longer period. It is usually taken out for one item such as a car or a house and is repaid in monthly installments along with a fixed rate of interest. A loan used to buy a house or a land is called a mortgage. Credit cards such as Visa or American Express are used to buy goods without needing to pay for them immediately. The customer receives a monthly statement and can either pay the entire amount in full, in which case no interest has to be paid, or in monthly installments plus a fixed rate of interest.

Упражнение № 7. Выпишите из первого абзаца глагол “to have” в разных функциях. Определите их.

Упражнение № 8. Прочитайте второй абзац, ответьте на вопрос:

How can a loan be repaid?

Вариант V

1) The staff must be prepared to answer accurately specific questions about merchandise they are trying to sell.

2) They assured the letter would arrive in time.

1) Consumers acting rationally, the first dollar of their income is spent upon basic high-urgency goods.

2) During periods of depression saving is an economic vice (зд.просчет), the reason being that too much saving is the cause of unemployment or depression.

1) The client who wants to open an account has some questions about banking.

2) The bank of England is giving support to sterling.

3) In 1972 this businessman had to leave his home in the East Africa.

1) If consignment were sent to you, transshipment at the port N. would be necessary.

2) It is necessary that the cheque should be received immediately.

3) Your customers would like our new material, a sample of which we send you with this letter.

4) This letter should be accompanied by an enclosure.

1) For the last 20 years the company has been making a name for itself.

2) The shopkeeper could not understand the buyer for he spoke some unknown language.

3) The shareholders could meet the director and ask questions because a special annual General Meeting was organized by the company.

4) Because of great dividend on ordinary shares the group’s profits were large.

Упражнение № 6. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.

Types of loss

1) Insurers distinguish between total loss and partial loss. An actual total loss (ATL) occurs when the ship and cargo have sunk and cannot be recovered. If the ship disappears after leaving the port or if it is a long overdue, this also means an actual total loss. If the ship returns after a claim for ATL is settled, it automatically becomes the property of the insurers. A constructive total loss (CTL) occurs when the ship or goods are so badly damaged that the cost of repairing them would be greater than their market value.

2) As for partial loss, it can be either particular average or general average. Particular average occurs when the object insured is lost or damaged because of an accident, such as fire or flood on board the ship. The loss is borne by the person to whom the ship belonged. General average occurs when the object insured is sacrificed in order to prevent a total loss; for example, goods may be thrown overboard in order to stop a ship sinking. The main loss is borne by all parties – both the ship owner and the cargo owner.

Упражнение № 7. Выпишите из первого абзаца глагол “would” и укажите его функцию.

Упражнение № 8. Прочитайте второй абзац, ответьте на вопрос:

When does general average occur?

Тексты для устного перевода

1. Bills of exchange

A bill of exchange is an order from one person to another to pay a certain amount at a certain time. The money can be paid either to the person who gave the order or to a third party. Bills of exchange can be used for either domestic or foreign trade.

A payment transaction made by bill of exchange generally proceeds the following way. The drawer makes out the bill of exchange and sends it to the drawee (the person who has to pay it). He may send two copies (the first and second bill of exchange) in case one gets lost.

The drawee has to accept one of the bills by signing the front of it. If two copies are sent, the copy which the drawee does not sign automatically becomes invalid. A bill of exchange which hasn’t yet been accepted is called a draft; an accepted bill of exchange is called an acceptance.

The drawee then sends the accepted bill of exchange to the payee, who may be the drawer or a third party. At maturity (the date on which the bill of exchange has to be paid), the payee presents the bill for payment and gets his money. The payee can also negotiate the bill of exchange, but has to endorse it first.

Each bill of exchange belongs to a certain category, depending on the time at which it matures (has to be paid). A sight bill includes the words “Pay at sight”. The drawee has to pay as soon as the draft is presented (as soon as he sees it).

(1380)

2. Letter of credit

A letter of credit is a promise made by the buyer’s bank to send a certain sum of money to the sellers bank to be credited to the seller provided he fulfils his part of the sales contract.

The types of letter of credit are the following. A revocable letter of credit can be cancelled or changed without seller’s agreement. As this does not offer the seller much control over payment, this type of letter of credit is rarely used. An irrevocable letter of credit can be cancelled or changed, but only with the agreement of all parties. A confirmed letter of credit is always irrevocable.

If the seller feels that the risk of not receiving payment is still to high, for example, because the buyer’s country’s economy is unstable, he can arrange for a bank in his own country to confirm the letter of credit. This means that the seller will receive his money from the confirming bank, regardless of whether or not his invoice is paid in the buyer’s country.

First when paying letter of credit buyer and seller agree on all terms and conditions of the sales contract. The buyer fills out an application form to open a letter of credit at his bank. The buyer’s bank opens the letter of credit and sends it to the seller’s bank. The seller’s bank tells the seller that the letter of credit has been opened. The seller checks that all the terms and conditions are correctly listed in the letter of credit and collects all the necessary transport documents. He gives the transport documents to his bank and can get his money now if the letter of credit is confirmed. The seller’s bank checks that all the documents are correct and sends them to the buyer’s bank. The buyer’s bank in its turn checks the documents again and sends the payment to the seller’s shipping documents in return. With these he can collect the goods from the carrier in his country.

(1900)

3. Sales contract

The sales contract is the agreement reached by the seller and the buyer (the parties to the contract). It can be made orally or in writing, although it is usual for the contract to be drawn up in writing to prevent disputes.

Sellers tend to make firm offers when trading in goods where the prices fluctuate a lot. They set a fixed price and if the buyer does not place an order within the period of time where this price is valid, the offer expires. The seller can then make another offer with new prices to keep up with the prices on the market. In this case, if the buyer is not interested in the goods, he has to return them within a certain period of time; otherwise he will have to pay for them.

After a sales contract has been concluded, the seller and the buyer have to fulfill certain liabilities (that means there are certain things they have to do). The seller’s liabilities are: to deliver goods on time and in perfect condition; to ensure that the title to the goods is transferred to the buyer – in other words the seller has to make sure that the buyer becomes owner of the goods. This is normally done by passing a special document, the document of title, to the buyer. The buyer’s liabilities are: to accept delivery of the goods; to pay for the goods within the time agreed. If one party does not fulfill its liabilities, the contract is broken. In this case the other party (the injured party) can claim compensation.

(1300)

4. Terms of payment

When deciding on the terms of payment, the seller and the buyer have to agree on: when to pay (for example, in advance, on delivery); how to pay (for example, cash, cheque, transfer); how much to pay (whether the seller is prepared to grant any discounts).

The terms of payment such as Cash with Order (CWO) and Cash on Delivery (COD) are particularly suitable for domestic trade. If the buyer sends payment with his order, it is favourable for the seller because there is no risk of not getting payment for the goods. As payment may arrive some time before the goods are sent out, it also means the seller can work with the money. But it is not favourable for the buyer, because if the seller is unreliable, the buyer might pay for the goods and not get them. And if the buyer has to return the goods for any reason, he has to make sure that he gets his money back. Because this term of payment carries a certain risk for the buyer, he will generally only agree to it in certain situations: if he is doing business for the first time with a reputable company; if the seller gives him a discount; if he places a special, expensive order. In this case the seller may ask for a part-payment to be sent with the order.

If the terms of payment are Cash on Delivery, the buyer pays the company which delivers the goods at the time they are delivered. The payment is then transferred to the seller. Here again the risk for the seller of not being paid is minimal. And even if the buyer refuses to accept delivery and pay, the seller does not lose the goods. As for the buyer there is no longer the risk for him of not receiving goods he has paid for. But the main disadvantage for him is that he does not have to inspect the goods before paying for them. Companies which don’t know anything about the financial standing of their customers prefer to use this term of payment.

(1850)

5. Your rights when buying goods

Complaining about faulty goods or bad service is never easy. Most people dislike making a fuss. However, when you are shopping, it is important to know your rights.

When you buy something from a shop, you are making a contract. This contract means that it’s up to the shop – not the manufacturer – to deal with your complaints if the goods are not satisfactory. What do we mean by satisfactory?

The goods must not be broken or damaged and must work properly. This is known as ‘merchantable quality’. A sheet, which had a tear in it, or a clock that didn’t go when you wound it would not pass this test.

The goods must be as described – whether on the pack or by the salesman. A hairdryer which the box says is leather should not turn out to be pink; a pair of shoes the salesman says is leather should not be plastic.

The goods should be fit for their purpose. This means the purpose for which most people buy those particular goods. If you wanted something for a special purpose, you must have said exactly what for. If, for instance, the shop assures you that a certain glue will mend broken china, and it does not, you have a right to return it.

If the shop sells you faulty goods, it has broken its side of the bargain. If goods are faulty when you first inspect or use them, go back to the shop, say that you cancel the purchase and ask for a complete refund. If you prefer, you can accept a repair or a replacement.

If the goods break down through no fault of yours, after you have used them for a time, you may still be entitled to some compensation. In some cases it would be reasonable to expect a compete refund – if, for instance, your washing machine irreparably broke down after only three wash days. But if your washing machine worked perfectly for a while and then broke, you could only expect some of the purchase price back. You and the supplier must negotiate a reasonable settlement.

(2 200)

6. The private sector

There are various types of business organization which operate in the private sector.

A business run by a sole trader has just one owner, who is entirely responsible for all the company’s business affairs. This type of organization has certain advantages and disadvantages.

1. The sole trader doesn’t have to consult anyone else when making decisions but at the same time a sole trader has to bear 100% of the risks incurred by his company. For this reason he may have more difficulties raising capital. The profits do not have to be shared with anyone else but a sole trader has unlimited liability for his company, which means that if he goes bankrupt, he may lose both his company and his personal property.

2. A business run by a partnership has two or more owners. When entering into a partnership, an agreement is drawn up defining the rights, responsibilities and liabilities of each partner, such as how the profits are to be distributed and what part each partner is to play in managing the company. The partners may be active, meaning that they are actively involved in the company’s business; or sleeping, which means they invest money in the company and receive a share of profits, but do not concern themselves with the company’s business affairs.

3. From a legal point of view, a joint-stock company counts as a separate person, which means that its shareholders (owners) and directors (the people chosen by the shareholders to run the company) only have limited liability. There are two types of joint-stock company: public limited company (plc) and private limited company (Ltd.). The capital for public limited company is raised from members of the public. For this reason, a plc can be listed on the stock exchange, although it doesn’t have to be. Before it can start doing business, a plc needs to have a minimum amount of share capital. There are much more private limited companies than public limited companies. The shares of a private limited company are held by specially chosen persons or companies, which means it can’t be listed on the stock exchange. However unlike public limited companies, private limited companies don’t need a minimum amount of share capital – it’s theoretically possible for a private limited company to have just one share held by one person.

(2 300)

7. Discounting and protesting a bill of exchange

If the payee needs his money before the bill of exchange reaches maturity, he can discount it. This means he can take it to a bank which will pay him its value minus interest and bank fees (the discount). The amount deducted depends on the length of time before the bill reaches maturity and on how high the risk is that the drawee won’t pay.

In turn the bank may be able to have the bill of exchange rediscounted at the central bank. However, the central bank only rediscounts a limited number of bills, depending on how high the inflation rate is (if inflation is high, fewer bills will be rediscounted in order to prevent more money going into circulation).

A bill of exchange can also be protested. A protest is a formal written notice that a bill of exchange has been dishonoured, and is needed before the payee can go to court to recover the money. If the drawee does not pay the bill of exchange when it is presented to him at maturity, it will be presented to him at maturity, it will be presented to him again within two working days, this time by a notary public. If the drawee still does not pay, the notary stamps and signs the bill as a record of the dishonor. Such a dishonour is a serious matter it may be published in trade journals and at the Chamber of Commerce, in which case the drawee will lose his good reputation.

(1 246)

8. Transport system and types of cargo

A good transport system is needed if goods are to be traded efficiently. A consignor (someone who dispatches goods) can choose to send his goods to the consignee (the person who receives the goods) by water, which covers both domestic (national) and ocean (international) shipping; land, by road or by rail; air.

When choosing most suitable form of transport, the consignor has to consider what kind of goods are to be sent – perishable goods have to be transported more quickly than non-perishable goods, for example; the place of destination – not all destinations can be reached by all forms of transport; the cost of each form of transport, how fast it is and how safe. The consignor may have to decide whether speed is more important than safety.

When goods are being transported, they are called “cargo” or “freight”. Cargo can be divided into three categories: 1) general cargo – goods sent packed in boxes, cases, chests and other containers; 2) bulk cargo – large quantities of items such as sand, grain and coal when sent unpacked; 3) bulky cargo – large individual items such as cars which have to be sent unpacked.

(1 140)

9. Domestic and ocean shipping

When sending goods by ship, the carrier is the shipping line.

Domestic shipping runs on inland waters such as rivers, lakes, canals. One important service provided by domestic shipping is the feeder (приток реки, канал) service, which brings goods along inland waterways to the international quays where they can be loaded directly onto ocean-going ships for transportation abroad. This saves considerable time and effort compared with transporting goods to the port by road or rail and then bringing them to the quay for loading. The transport document used specifically for domestic shipping is the river bill of lading (also called the inland waterways bill of lading).

The goods are also transported on the open sea or ocean. There are several types of sea-going ship which carry cargo. Liners sail on fixed routes and keep to a schedule. They mainly transport general cargo. Tramps take any cargo they can and sail to any port required. They do not follow a schedule or any fixed route. Coasters travel from one port to another along the coast of a country. They are not used for international shipping. The transport document used specifically for ocean shipping is the ocean bill of lading.

(1 230)

10. Money

Money is used for buying or selling goods, for measuring value and for storing wealth. Almost every society now has a money economy based on coins and paper notes of one kind or another. However, this has not always been true. In primitive societies a system of barter was used. Barter was a system of direct exchange of goods. Somebody could exchange a sheep, for example, for anything in the marketplace that they considered to be of equal value. Barter, however, was a very unsatisfactory system because people’s precise needs seldom coincide. People needed a more practical system of exchange, and various money systems developed based on foods which the members of a society recognized as having value. Cattle, grain, salt and tobacco have all been used. Precious metals gradually took over because, when made into coins, they were portable, durable, recognizable and divisible into larger and smaller units of value.

A coin is a piece of metal, usually disc-shaped, which bears lettering, designs or numbers showing its value. Until the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries coins were given monetary worth based on the exact amount of metal contained in them, but most modern coins are based on face value, the value that governments choose to give them, irrespective of the actual metal content. Coins have been made of gold, silver, copper, aluminum, nickel, lead, zinc, plastic and in China even from pressed tea leaves. Most governments now issue paper money in the form of notes. Paper money is obviously easier to handle and much more convenient in the modern world. Cheques, bankers’ cards, and credit cards are being used increasingly and it is possible to imagine a world where ‘money’ in the form of coins and paper currency will no longer be used. Even today, in the United States many places – especially filling stations (заправочные станции) – will not accept cash at night for security reasons.

(1 925)

Грамматические таблицы

Таблица 1

Многофункциональное слово “one”

Функция, значение	Примеры	Перевод
1) Числительное “один”, “одна”, “одно”	This store is one of the oldest.	Этот магазин – один из старейших.
2) Формальное подлежащее в неопределенно-личных предложениях, самостоятельно не переводится	One knows (известно) One believes (считают) One can (можно) expect One must (нужно) expect One may (можно) expect	that this shopkeeper makes good profits.	Известно Считают Можно ожидать Нужно ожидать Можно ожидать	, что этот владелец магазина получает большие прибыли.
3) Словозаменитель. Переводится тем существительным, которое заменяет или опускается в переводе	The new way of transporting goods differs from the old one.	Новый способ перевозки товаров отличается от старого (способа).
4) Местоимение в форме притяжательного падежа one’s – свой, собственный	It is difficult to predict one’s behaviour during the recession.	Трудно предсказать свое поведение во время экономического спада.

Таблица 2

Многофункциональные слова “that”, “those”

Функция, значение	Примеры	Перевод
1) Указательные местоимения “этот”, “эти”, “тот”, “те”	Those stores are the most popular.	Те магазины самые популярные.
2) Словозаменители. Переводятся тем существительным, которое они заменяют, или опускаются в переводе	The prices of this store are high compared with those of supermarket.	Цены в этом магазине высокие по сравнению с ценами супермаркета (с супермаркетом).
3) “That” – союзное слово “который”	The product that arrived in the shop was of high quality.	Продукт, который поступил в магазин, был высокого качества.
4) “That” – союз “что”, “чтобы”	One can say that this advertisement is very efficient.	Можно сказать, что эта реклама очень эффективная.

Таблица 3

Многофункциональное слово “it”

Функция, значение	Примеры	Перевод
1) Личное местоимение “он”, “она”, “оно”, (неодушевленный предмет)	A new consignment arrived at the store. It will be sold off quickly.	Новая партия товаров поступила в магазин. Она будет распродана быстро.
2) Указательное местоимение “это”	The prices are rising. It means that…	Цены растут. Это означает, что…
3) Формальное подлежащее безличного предложения. Самостоятельно не переводится	It is common practice It in essential It is impossible It is important It is expected	to dispatch the goods in time.	Обычно принято Важно Невозможно Важно, что Ожидается, что	отправлять товары вовремя.
товары отправят вовремя.
4) Формальное дополнение после некоторых глаголов. Самостоятельно не перево- дится	The method makes it possible to obtain good productivity.	Метод делает возможным получение хорошей производительности.

Окончание табл. 3

Функция, значение	Примеры	Перевод
5) Часть выделительной конструкции it is… that (which). Переводится “именно”, “это”, “только”	It is the customers will that is the most important. It was not until 1950 that the new method entered into practice.	Именно (это) желание покупателей наиболее важно. Только в 1950 году новый метод вошел в практику.

Таблица 4

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