Навчально-методичний посібник з граматики

Навчально-методичний посібник з граматики

для студентів 4 курсу

факультету іноземних мов

Харків - 2008

CONTENTS

(200 8 -200 9 - 2 Year Piloting )

	Revision
1	Parts of Speech. ………………………………………………	3
2	Structural classification of the simple sentence	3
3	Communicative types of sentences
4	Principal members of the sentence
5	The Subject
6	The Predicate
7	Simple verbal predicates
8	Simple nominal predicates
9	Compound verbal modal predicates
10	Compound verbal aspect predicates
11	Compound nominal predicates
12	Predicatives
13	Link verbs
14	Mixed kinds of predicates
15	Secondary members of the sentence
16	The Object
17	The Attribute
18	The Apposition
19	The Adverbial modifier
20	Independent elements of the sentence
	Main Course
21	Composite sentences……………………………………………………
22	Compound sentences……………………………………………………
23	Coordinate connection ……………………………………………………
24	Complex sentences ……………………………………………………
25	Functional classification of subordinate clauses ……………………………
26	Complex sentences with subject clauses ……………………………………
27	Complex sentences predicative clauses ……………………………………
28	Complex sentences with object clauses ……………………………………
29	Complex sentences with attributive clauses ………………………………
30	Complex sentences with attributive appositive clauses ……………………
31	Complex sentences with attributive relative clauses ………………………
32	Types of relative clauses ……………………………………………………
34	Complex sentences with adverbial clauses …………………………………
35	Complex sentences with adverbial clauses of place …………………………
36	Complex sentences with adverbial clauses of time ………………………
37	Complex sentences with adverbial clauses of manner ………………………
38	Complex sentences with adverbial clauses of comparison …………………
39	Complex sentences with adverbial clauses of condition ……………………
40	Complex sentences with adverbial clauses of concession …………………
41	Complex sentences with adverbial clauses of purpose ……………………
42	Complex sentences with adverbial clauses of reason / cause ………………
43	Complex sentences with adverbial clauses of result / consequences ………
44	Linking devices ……………………………………………………………
45	Punctuation …………………………………………………………………
46	Glossary of grammar terms

Revision

Parts of Speech

All parts of speech in English are grouped in different types of classes. This classification is based on three main principles:

· their grammatical meaning

· their form

· their syntactical characteristics

Grammarians distinguish between notional and functional (structural) parts of speech. Notional parts of speech denote extralinguistic phenomena such as things, actions, qualities, emotions etc, while functional denote linguistic phenomena either expressing relations between words or sentences or emphasizing their meaning.

The notional parts of speech include:

the noun
the verb
the adjective
the adverb
the adlink (stative)
the pronoun
the numeral
the modal words
the interjection

The functional (structural) parts of speech include:

the preposition
the conjunction
the article
the particle

Note:

The particle is a part of speech, which can emphasise, limit or intensify the meaning of the word, e.g.

She is a student too. He is only a schoolboy. He is just the person I need.

The adlink denotes a temporary state of a person or thing, e.g.

When I looked into the room, the child was still awake.

I am afraid to stay at home alone.

Note that some grammarians claim that adlinks start only with the prefex ‘a’, e.g. ablaze, afloat etc.

Modal words express the speaker’s evaluation of the relation between the statement made in the sentence and reality, e.g. certainly, of course, perhaps, unfortunately, etc, e.g.

I will certainly come tomorrow. Perhaps, she is ill.

The numeral denotes an abstract number or the order of things in succession, e.g.

There were twenty students in her group. I was the third to answer at the exam.

TASK 1. Sort out the words given below according to the parts of speech they can belong to. Define what parts of speech they are.

Notional	Structural

crawl
apparently
conscious
ongoing
rather
who
without
further
ouch!
afterwards
round
might
both
too
lovely
billion
whenever
not
reach
flourish

Declarative

1	affirmative	Jane enjoys swimming.
2	negative	Ted isn’t interested in computers.

Interrogative

1	general	Has he really done this job?
2	special	When did he finish doing this job?
3	disjunctive	He has finished this job, hasn’t he?
4	alternative	Shall we meet on Thursday or on Friday?
5	negative-interrogative	Haven’t you heard about her success?

Exclamatory/ exclamations

What a surprise! How nice to see you again! How wonderful you look!

Notes:

1. General questions opening with “Will you …?/Would….?» may be considered as commands or requests according to their communicative role, e.g.

· Will you help me?

· Would you do it for me?

2. Negative-interrogative sentences can sometimes be regarded as exclamations, e.g.

· Isn’t he clever!

· Don’t you know it!

3. Disjunctive questions may have different patterns:

a) positive statement + negative tag + positive answer

· You knew that before, didn’t you? - Yes, I did.

b) negative statement + positive tag + negative answer

· You didn’t know that before, did you? - No, I didn’t.

c) if the person who asks the question, does not expect any answer, the tag agrees with the statement, e.g.

· You knew it before, did you?

· You didn’t know it before, didn’t you?

4. Note the difference in Russian/Ukrainian translations of replies to disjunctive questions:

а) Питер любит читать, не так ли? – Да, любит. (Пітер любить читати, чи не так? – Так, любить.) = Peter likes reading, doesn’t he? – Yes, he does.

b) Питер любит читать, не так ли? – Нет, не любит. (Пітер любить читати, чи не так? – Ні, не любить.) = Peter likes reading, doesn’t he? – No, he doesn’t.

c) Питер не любит читать, не так ли? - Да, не любит. ( Пітер не любить читати, чи не так? - Так, не любить) = Peter doesn’t like reading, does he? – No , he doesn ’ t.

d) Питер не любит читать, не так ли? – Нет, любит. ( Пітер не любить читати, чи не так? - Ні, любить) = Peter doesn’t like reading, does he? – But he does./ Yes, he does.

5. Disjunctive questions with the modal verb ‘to have to’ and with set expressions with the verb ‘to have’ are formed with auxiliary verbs ‘do, does, did’, e.g.

· You have to get up very early, don’t you? (modal verb)

· She has to cook for the family, doesn’t she? (modal verb)

· He usually has a shower in the evening, doesn’t he? (set expression with the verb ‘to have’)

TASK 5. Matchthe sentences below with their communicative types.

	Sentence		Communicative types
1	How beautifully he is singing!	a	declarative affirmative
2	What have you been doing with yourself?	b	declarative negative
3	Stop fooling around!	c	interrogative general
4	She nodded approvingly.	d	interrogative special
5	Isn’t he a genius?	e	interrogative alternative
6	None of them agreed.	f	interrogative disjunctive
7	Is it going to rain?	g	negative-interrogative
8	Will you pay the bills or shall I do it on my way home?	h	imperative affirmativ
9	Let Jim collect the kids from school.	i	imperative negative
10	Don’t behave as an enemy.	j	exclamatory
11	Sam didn’t agree with us, did he?
12	Can you do me a favour?
13	Has he bought the book yet?
14	Let’s wash up together, shall we?
15	Didn’t they finish the project before the deadline?

TASK 6. Translate into English.

1. Ты же не будешь держать меня в неведении, да? – Да, не буду. Как только тетушка даст мне знать о своем решении, я тебе сообщу.

2. Какой Том несносный мальчишка! Он снова залез на самое высокое дерево в саду и не хочет слезать! – Вам снова придется вызывать пожарную бригаду, чтобы его сняли с дерева, не так ли? – Боюсь, что да.

3. Его ошибка осталась незамеченной, да? – Нет, умные люди ее все-таки заметили.

4. Полиция обнаружила несколько килограммов наркотиков, спрятанных в подвале, не так ли? – Нет. Наркотики лежали так, как будто кто-то хотел, чтобы их нашли.

5. Вы не ожидали, что мы придем во время, не так ли? – Да, не ожидала. Я привыкла, что вы всегда опаздываете.

6. Как приятно окунуться в прохладную воду в такой жаркий день! – Особенно когда вся работа, которая была запланирована на неделю, закончена и впереди беззаботные выходные.

7. Им бы лучше выехать более ранним поездом, да? – Оставь их в покое. Пусть принимают собственные решение, хорошо?

8. Разве исключения не подтверждают правила? – Я никогда не понимал этой поговорки. К тому же, в данной ситуации она мне кажется не совсем уместной.

9. Закон всегда прав, не так ли? – Не всегда. Это зависит от тех, кто пишет законы и вершит правосудие.

10. Здесь должно быть более легкое объяснение, не так ли? – Возможно. Но мы вряд ли найдем его, когда у нас так мало времени.

11. Как профессионально она танцует! Если бы я не знала, что она никогда не училась хореографии, я бы подумала, что она занималась у лучших мастеров балета.

12. Сколько гостей будет у Кейт на дне рождения? – Около 50. – Она всегда приглашает так много людей? – Да, она любит большие компании.

13. Моя мама не любит, когда я поздно прихожу домой. – Моя тоже. Она никогда не ложится спать, пока я не приду.

14. Какая замечательная погода была во время нашего отпуска! – Все время светило солнце, да? – Да, нет. Было пасмурно и иногда шел дождь. – Что же в этом хорошего? – Мы с мужем – грибники, и для нас это самая хорошая погода.

MEMBERS OF THE SENTENCE

principal/main secondary

subject predicate object attribute adverbial modifier

Apposition

THE SUBJECT

The subject is the principal part of a two-member sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and of which the second principal part (the predicate) is grammatically dependent, i.e. in most cases it agrees with the subject in number and person.

The subject can be expressed by:

1. a noun

· a noun in the common case, e.g. The sea is calm tonight. Anna sings beautifully.

· a noun in the possessive case, e.g. Anna’s was the best voice of all.

· a noun group, Paul and Vera are my best friends. The blue of the sky showed that it was morning already.

2. a substantivized adjective, e.g. The old and the young must be helped by the society.

3. a numeral, e.g.

· Thirteen is my favourite number. (cardinal numeral)

· The third was our bus. (ordinal numeral)

4. a pronoun

· a personal pronoun, e.g. She is my sister. We were really happy.

· a possessive pronoun in its absolute form, e.g. Theirs was a happy marriage.

· an indefinite pronoun, e.g. Anyone can do it, it’s easy. One can’t be always in a good mood.

· a demonstrative pronoun, e.g. That was not true.

· a negative pronoun, e.g. No one knew the truth.

· an interrogative pronoun, e.g. Who has been sitting on my chair and has broken it?

· a detaching pronoun, e.g. The other is better.

· a universal pronoun, e.g. All is well that ends well.

5. an infinitive or an infinitive phrase, e.g. To live is to love. To forgive that was impossible.

6. a gerund or a gerundial phrase, e.g. Seeing is believing. Sleeping all the time is wasting your life.

7. dummy subjects ‘it’ and ‘there’, e.g. It is never late to learn. There is many a slip between the cup and the lip.

8. a quotation, e.g. ‘Daddy’ is one of Danielle Steel’s romantic novels.

9. a subject clause, e.g. What is done cannot be undone.

TASK 7. Define the subject in the sentences below.

What is the meaning of all this?
Dark blue is not your colour, don’t buy this dress.
There was only one quality in a woman that appealed to him — charm; and the quieter it was, the more he liked it.
It was broad daylight when we started.
Who can tell the number of scintillating stars above our heads?
Could one do anything for them at all?
The third may be not taken into account.
To look for the keys or not in the dark was the question.
Will half of the sum be enough?
The brave won't lay down their arms.
Never is a long time.
Being an optimist after you've got everything you want doesn't count. (Kin Hubbard)
A few more of these is all that is needed.

THE PREDICATE

PREDICATE

SIMPLE COMPOUND

verbal nominal verbal nominal

modal aspect

Simple verbal predicates

Predicates of this kind denote one action and may be expressed by:

1. synthetical forms of the verb (notional verbs with or without endings), e.g.

· Mary cooks dinner every evening.

· Mary cooked dinner yesterday.

2. analytical form of the verb (an auxiliary verb + a notional verb), e.g.

· Mary is cooking dinner tonight. (is – an auxiliary verb; cooking is a notional verb)

· Mary has been going out with Jake since April. (has been –auxiliary verbs; going out is a notional verb)

· Yesterday she was invited to go out by Nick. (was – an auxiliary verb; invited – a notional verb)

3. phrasal verbs (e.g. to get up; to cut off; put on; to take off, etc.= a verb + post position), e.g.

· She is going out tonight.

· Jim never takes off his shoes when he comes home.

4. set expressions denoting short actions (e.g. to have a swim; to give a laugh, to make a move, etc.), e.g.

· At the sight of the dog Sofia got frightened and gave a cry.

· The expert took a look at the picture and said that it was a fake.

5. phraseological set expressions (to lose sight of, to take care of, to make fun of, to take part in, etc), e.g.

· Bertha changed her mind about the trip to Liverpool.

· Look through your papers and get rid of all you don’t need.

Simple nominal predicates

Predicates of this kind are expressed by a noun, an adjective, an infinitive, a gerund or a participle, e.g.

· I, a liar!

· She, jealous!

· They, trying to help?

· Such an old man, to walk so much?

Compound nominal predicates

Predicates of this kind consist of a link verb and a predicative (nominal part)

link verb + predicative

e.g. Pat is 25. She is single. She is a student. She looks very smart.

Do not confuse! predicate # predicative

PREDICATIVES

Predicatives can be expressed by different parts of speech:

nouns

· in the common case, e.g. Barbara is a pilot. Steve and Lily are orphans.

· in the possessive case, e.g. This book is Helen’s.

different kinds of pronouns, e.g.

· That was she. (personal pronoun)

· This book is hers. (possessive pronoun)

· That was nothing. (negative pronoun)

· That was all. (universal pronoun) , etc.

non-finite forms of verbs,

· Boris’s aim was to study in Oxford. (an infinitive)

· His hobby is painting. (a gerund)

· The day got more and more fascinating. (participle I)

· Bella sounded amused. (participle II)

adjectives, e.g. The roses in Helen’s garden were always beautiful. This kitten looks cute.
adlinks, e.g. At midnight the boat was still afloat.
numerals, e.g. Derek’s number was 37.
predicative clauses, e.g. That was what Dad wanted me to do.
quotations, e.g. The pirate’s answer was ‘No!’

LINK VERBS

One and the same verb can be both a link verb and a notional verb according to its function in the sentence. While serving as link verbs, notional verbs lose or change their lexical meaning. Compare:

No	Infinitive	Link Verb	Notional Verb
1	to be	Mary is a student.	She is in London now.
2	to look	She looked happy.	She looked at her friend.
3	to feel	Mary felt well.	He felt her hand on his shoulder.
4	to get	He got tired of sitting.	He got a letter from home.
5	to grow	He is growing old.	She is growing vegetables.
6	to turn	She turned pale.	He turned round the corner.
7	to come	His dream has come true.	We come home late.
8	to become	She became nervous.	He became a doctor.
9	to keep	She kept silent.	She kept her letters in a drawer.
10	to make	She will make a good teacher.	She will make a tasty cake.
11	to appear	She appeared excited.	She appeared in the room.
12	to remain	He remained silent.	She remained at home.
13	to smell	The cake smelled nice.	She smelled the rose.
14	to taste	The cake tasted delicious.	He tasted the cake.
15	to sound	(giving impression) Her voice on the phone sounded strange.	(producing a sound) The fireman sounded the alarm loudly.
16	to seem	She seems happy.	It seems to me that it’s true.

LINK VERBS + ADJECTIVES

Link verbsare never followed by adverbs, only by adjectives. Russian and Ukrainian learners often make mistakes in the following:

Мне холодно. (adverb) - I am cold. (adjective)
Она посмотрела на него холодно.(adverb) - She looked at him coldly. (adverb)
Cyп пахнет хорошо . (adverb) - The soup smells nice. (adjective)
Ребенок вел себя хорошо. (adverb) - The child behaved nicely. (adverb)

BUT: to feel well (physical state) ≠ to feel good (feeling happy or confident about smth)

to feel bad (physical state) ≠ to feel badly (not to feel smth with your fingers when you touch it)

How is your granny? - She feels well. / She feels bad.
How’s your granny’s hand after the operation? - She feels badly; her finger are still stiff.
I feel good about our visit to granny on Saturday.

MIXED KINDS OF PREDICATES

There exist some mixed kinds of predicates whose types are determined by the first type of predicate, e.g.

· You really ought to stop smoking. = compound modal aspect predicate

· The boy continued to be happy the whole week. = compound aspect nominal predicate

· John just had to be the first in that competition. = compound modal nominal predicate

TASK 8. Find predicatives in the sentence given below and match them with the parts of speech in the right-hand column.

1	She became bitter and unapproachable.	a	a participle I
2	The name of the book she read was ‘Chocolate’.	b	a participle II
3	What counts is that she really loves him.	c	a noun in the possessive case
4	When they approached, the boat was still afloat.	d	a gerundial phrase
5	He didn’t feel like talking to anyone right now.	e	an infinitive phrase
6	What is it?	f	a numeral
7	The aim was to find the house as soon as possible.	g	a noun
8	Their street was the fourth on the right.	h	a personal pronoun
9	The fault is definitely not mine.	i	an adlink
10	The mood of the mob was frightening.	j	a quotation
11	Giovanni looked crest-fallen.	k	an adjective
12	It was clear that the papers were Dr. Philip’s.	l	a possessive pronoun
13	It was a dark November night.	m	a predicative clause

TASK 9. Define the predicates in the quotations below.

1. Attitude is a little thing that makes a big difference. (Winston Churchill)

2. I have to exercise in the morning before my brain figures out what I'm doing.

3. A person will sometimes devote all his life to the development of one part of his body - the wishbone. (Robert Frost)

4. When you feel dog tired at night, it may be because you've growled all day long.

5. We cannot direct the wind but we can adjust the sails.

6. The world is full of cactus, but we don't have to sit on it.

7. The impossible can always be broken down into possibilities.

8. Too many of today's children have straight teeth and crooked morals. (Unknown high school principal)

9. It should be taught from the cradle that youth is a temporary condition from which one recovers. (Synthia Freema)

10. Before you put on a frown, make absolutely sure there are no smiles available. (Jim Beggs)

11. It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it. (Aristotle)

12. I am not young enough to know everything. (Oscar Wilde)

THE ATTRIBUTE

The attribute can be expressed by different parts of speech,

adjectives, e.g. Sandra was a beautiful girl.
pronouns, e.g.

· Dan showed me his photos. (possessive pronoun)

· Give me some apples, please. (indefinite pronoun)

· There was another piece of cake on her plate. (detaching pronoun)

numerals, e.g.

· I’ll come back in three weeks.(cardinal)

· Wednesday is the third day of the week. (ordinal)

nouns,

· in common case, e.g. It was a nice spring day.

· in possessive case, e.g. Ann’s new flat is great!

· prepositional nominal phrase, e.g. It’s only part of the book. She was the angel of a girl. He lived in the city of Bristol.

participles,

· Do you happen to know that laughing girl? (participle I)

· Can you see those lighted windows on the third floor? (participle II)

gerunds and gerundial phrases, e.g. Is there any chance of seeing you again?
infinitives or infinitive phrases, e.g. Jack was the first to come. I have no time to waste.
adverbs, e.g. The voice was heard from the room upstairs.
quotations, e.g. Tina had a good-for-nothing cousin.
attributive clauses, e.g. That was the man I had never seen before.

THE APPOSITION

The apposition is a kind of an attribute that explains or gives another name or definition to the noun or pronoun it modifies. It can be of two kinds:

Close apposition (non-detached)	Loose (detached) apposition
titles, military ranks, professions, geographical names, relations, etc – form one whole with the head word = an indivisible word-group	forms a separate sense group and gives identification or explanation
· Uncle Tom · the River Thames · Professor Foster · Sir Percival etc	· Her father, the local doctor, knows everybody around. · Mr. Trollope, a strong and muscular young man, was taller than the host.

TASK 11. Find attributes and appositions in the given sentences and comment on them.

The first day's journey from was intolerably tedious.
He was always the first to enter the dining-room and the last to leave.
The two men faced each other silently.
Ethel, the youngest, married a good-for-nothing little waiter.
To think that a man of his abilities would stoop to such a horrible trick as that.
Daniel Quilp began to comprehend the possibility of there being somebody at the door.
Oh, that never-to-be-forgotten summer in the Golden Valley!
Still, Pett's happiness or unhappiness is quite a life and death question with us.
He was one of these very, very tall, round-shouldered guys - he was about six four - with lousy teeth.
He had remembered her at once, for he always admired her, a very pretty creature.
I could never stand John’s you-take-me-as-you-find-me attitude.
She had lied about the scullery door being open on the night of the disappearance of the bank-notes.
I doubt whether Major Bell will approve of their plan, so casually outlined.
Thus these two waited with impatience for the three years to be over.
The first thing Martin did next morning was to call the insurance office.
All the people present were deeply shocked by the nature of the crime the defendant was charged with.
The second plane, a huge Boeing, was about to touch the concrete runway brightly lit by spotlights.
I'm afraid there is nothing to safely rely on in his account of the case.
His button of a nose was plastered to the shop window.
Samuel Chealy, the then President of the firm, was definitely against the dubious deal.

THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER

No	Type of Adverbial Modifier	Questions/ Prompts	Examples
1	Place · direction · destination · distance	Where? Where to? How far? Where from?	· In London they stayed at their friends’. · He moved from Glasgow to London in search of a job. · Their search took them far inland.
2	Time · time · frequency · duration · time relationship	When? How often? How long?	· In the evening it still rained. · We met only from time to time. · They’ve been friends for years. · Have you done it yet?
3	Manner	How? In what way? By what means? prepositions and conjunctions: with; without; by; by means of; with the help of; so; like this/that; thus	· Tessa walked with quick short steps. · Debby looks very much like her mother. · Jessica sang badly at the concert yesterday. · The blocks are raised by means of pulleys.
4	Cause / reason	Why? For what reason? prepositions: because of; thanks to; due to; owing to; on account of; for the reason of	· He had to retire because of ill health. · Some ski resorts opened early, thanks to a late-October snowstorm. · The tower is closed for reasons of safety.
5	Purpose	What for? For what purpose? prepositions: in order to; so as; for	· Samuel trained every day in order to improve his performance. · I drove at a steady 50 mph so as to save fuel. · I reserved this place for you to sit closer to me.
6	Result / consequence	No identifying questions. It is usually expressed by the infinitive or an infinitive phrase. Very often used with adverbs of degree such as “too; enough; so… as”	· The apples are not ripe enough to eat. · We are too clever to believe him. · He was so fortunate as to get the first prize.
7	Condition	In what case? On what condition? prepositions and conjunctions: but for; except for; without;‘if; unless	· Unless some extra money is found, the theatre will close. · I might never have got to university but for you. · She felt fine except for being a little tired. · Without faith there can be no cure.
8	Concession	In spite of what? prepositions and conjunctions: in spite of; despite; for all; with all;‘thought’	· Despite all our efforts to save the school, the authorities decided to close it. · Though she's almost 40, she still plans to compete. · Clearly, for all his reputation, he was out of date. · With all his faults, I love him.
9	Attendant circumstances and subsequent events	No identifying questions. It expresses some fact that accompanies the event presented by the modified part of the sentence.	· He sat quietly in his armchair smoking his pipe. (attendant circumstances - He sat and smoke) · Fred said something to her, receiving no answer. (subsequent events – He said something to her but only after that did not receive any answer.)
10	Comparison (may overlap with other adverbilas like manner or purpose)	No identifying questions. conjunctions: than; as … as; as if; as though; like”	· Jason is much taller than his father. · His hands were as black as soot. · She behaves as if she were a child. · He speaks German like a native speaker.
11	Degree and measure	How much? How long? To what extent? To what degree?	· The girl was very excited. · It is pretty much the same story I’ve heard. · It is rather problematic. · Now you may laugh to your heart’s content.
12	Exception	Except what? prepositions: but, but for, save for; except for, apart from	· We had nothing but hope. · They bought everything except cheese. · Apart from the ending, it's a really good film. · Everyone went out except for Scott and Dan. · She answered all the questions save one. (formal)

TASK 12. Find adverbial modifiers in the given sentences and comment on them.

1. The people in the bus remained silent till the end of the ride.

2. In spite of their lively talk, each of them had something in reserve.

3. The lady lived in a large gloomy house in one of London's higher class squares.

4. The fire that was merrily burning in the grate attracted the newcomers like a magnet.

5. Bill was much too exhausted from his night vigil to be of any further help.

6. I paused while she took off her coat

7. The room was empty save for a small boy playing with his toys in a corner.

8. But for sheer coincidence, you would hardly be likely to run across him in this busy place.

9. The motorcycle rushed past like a lightning leaving a cloud of smoke and a few stunned passers-by behind.

10. In case of any emergency, press the red button on your right.

11. Poetry lifts the veil from the hidden beauty of the world, and makes familiar objects be as if they were not familiar. (Percy Bysshe Shelley)

12. The wisest mind has something yet to learn. (George Santayana)

13. Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous. (Confucius)

14. Harry had been looking forward to learning to fly more than anything else.

15. She came out into the garden only to find that it was as hot there as inside.