B. Glossary of Negotiation Definitions

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Agent: A person who acts for or in place of another individual or entity as their representative in a negotiation with a third party. An agent, sometimes referred to as a third party agent, has full or limited authority to act on the behalf of the party they represent. (Agent)

Arbitration: A process to resolve a dispute between negotiating parties who have reached a deadlock in their negotiation. The parties in dispute are referred to a ‘third party’, which is one that is either agreed upon by the parties in dispute, or as provided by legislated law. The third party renders a judgement that is binding on the parties in dispute. Arbitration is often used in international negotiations and in collective bargaining. (Arbitration)

Aspiration Base: This is a realistic view of setting the highest achievable standard in terms of goals or objectives in concluding a negotiated agreement. (Aspiration Base)

BATNA: An acronym described by Roger Fisher and William Ury which means Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement. It is the alternative action that will be taken should your proposed agreement with another party result in an unsatisfactory agreement or when an agreement fails to materialize. If the potential results of your current negotiation only offers a value that is less than your BATNA, there is no point in proceeding with the negotiation, and one should use their best available alternative option instead. Prior to the start of negotiations, each party should have ascertained their own individual BATNA. (BATNA)

Bargaining: A form of distributive negotiation. Bargaining is a simple form of negotiation process that is both competitive and positional. Bargaining predominates in one-time negotiations and often revolves around a single issue – usually price. One party usually attempts to gain advantage over another to obtain the best possible agreement. (Bargaining)

Bargaining Zone: Is the range or area in which an agreement is satisfactory to both parties involved in the negotiation. The bargaining zone is essentially the overlap area between walk away positions in a negotiation. See also " Zopa" (Bargaining Zone)

Coalitions: A temporary union between two or more individuals or groups for a common aim or goal. A relatively common practice utilized in multi party negotiations, it is used to gain advantage in the negotiation process. (Coalitions)

Collective Bargaining: A negotiation process that occurs between employers (or their representatives) and the representatives of a union to negotiate issues that consists of wages, hours of work and other conditions of employment. Normally results in a written contract that is defined by specific time duration – ‘life of the contract’. (Collective Bargaining)

Common Ground: This term refers to the area of agreement or a basis for an understanding, that is mutually agreed upon by all parties to a negotiation. (Common Ground)

Concession Strategy: Your concession strategy is a plan of the goals / positions and sometimes the underlying interests that you will be trading with the other party. Before you enter the negotiations, at the very least you should have clarity on your and the other party’s goals, and an sequence of which goals you want to trade or exchange. Concession strategies vary in detail. ‘Concession Strategy’ is more accurately called the ‘Trading Plan’. (Concession Strategy)

Constituent: A constituent is someone or a group on the same side of the negotiating party but who exerts an independent influence on the outcome through the principal negotiator, or to whom the principal negotiator is accountable. For example, a union negotiator must have an agreement voted upon by the union members (constituents) before it can be ratified as an agreement. (Constituent)

Counter Purchase: An arrangement where one company agrees to sell products to a foreign purchaser for cash, but also simultaneously agrees to purchase specified products or services from the foreign partner. Also known as parallel bartering and is the most commonly used form in a countertrade agreement in international business interactions. (Counter Purchase)

Counter Trade Agreement: An international trade arrangement with a foreign business partner. A barter system whereby the parties agree to exchange, or purchase (buy back) for resale, goods or services in exchange for another type of goods or services. Goods or services exchanged may be used in the primary product or service being sold. (Counter Trade Agreement)

Counterparty: In a negotiation, a counterparty (counterparties – plural) is the other representatives(s) of the other negotiation party(s) with whom one is negotiating a potential agreement or contract. (Counterparty)

Debt Negotiation: A negotiation process where one party negotiates the amount (debt) and other any other applicable terms of a loan such as arrears, liability, or balance due which is owed to another party. (Debt Negotiation)

Distributive Negotiation: A distributive negotiation type or process that normally entails a single issue to be negotiated. The single issue often involves price and frequently relates to the bargaining process. Also referred to as ‘Win – Lose’, or ‘Fixed – Pie’ negotiation because one party generally gains at the expense of another party. ‘Win - Win’ negotiation is conversely often referred to as Integrative Negotiation. (Distributive Negotiation)

Facilitator: This is usually a mutually agreed upon neutral third party to lead a complex meeting of two or more parties involved in a negotiation. Often employed in ‘multi party’ negotiations. Their purpose is to organize, aid, and offer assistance in helping the negotiating parties find their own solutions on the issues under discussion. (Facilitator)

Framing: A means to process and organize information. A frame provides a perspective of the problems or issues for a decision maker. One can use a frame to understand the importance of facts or issues in relation to each other. One can use this understanding of the facts or issues to then determine possible outcomes and consider contingency actions to solve a problem. Using a framework can allow you to consider all potential gains and losses and available options for any situation. (Framing)

Haggling: A form of distributive negotiation. Haggling means to negotiate, argue, or barter about the terms of a business transaction, usually focusing on the purchase or selling price of a product or service. (Haggling)

Hostage Negotiation: A negotiation conducted between law enforcement agencies, diplomatic or other government representatives for the release of a person(s) held hostage against their will by criminal, terrorist or other elements. (Hostage Negotiation)

Initial Public Offering (IPO): A company’s first sale of stock to the public. The IPO is usually tendered, but not always, by those of young, small companies attempting to locate equity capital and a public market for their stock. An IPO may present considerable risk but also has the potential of significant profits for investors. Investment companies (closed end funds) generally include underwriting fees which represent a load which is then passed onto buyers. (Initial Public Offering (IPO))

Integrative Framework: A means of negotiation decision making to conceptualize the actions, contingencies of all possible outcomes, options and scenarios. Applied to integrative negotiations with the intention of incorporating the goals and aims of all the negotiating parties to create maximum value through collaborative negotiation. (Integrative Framework )

Integrative Negotiation: Integrative negotiation is often referred to as ‘win-win’ and typically entails two or more issues to be negotiated. It often involves an agreement process that better integrates the aims and goals of all the involved negotiating parties through creative and collaborative problem solving. Relationship is usually more important, with more complex issues being negotiated than with Distributive Negotiation. (Integrative Negotiation)

Interests: Interests are considered to be the motivating factor(s) and underlying reasons behind the ‘position’ adopted by a negotiating party. They often entail some combination of economic, security, recognition, and control issues, or the desires, concerns, aims or goals of a negotiating party in a negotiation process. (Interests)

Internal Negotiation: A process that occurs between two or more members of the same company, organization or constituency. (Internal Negotiation)

Joint Venture Agreement: A contractual agreement between 2 or more business partners to assume a common business strategy on a project. All partners generally agree to share the profits and losses through their common shareholdings. (Joint Venture Agreement)

Litigation: A formalized legal process to resolve a dispute through legal action in the form of a lawsuit. It often entails a contractual issue. It is the act of either bringing or challenging a lawsuit. (Litigation)

Lose-Lose Negotiation: A negotiation result where all parties to a negotiation leave resources or gold on the table at the conclusion of a negotiation and fail to recognize or exploit more creative options that would lead to a ‘win-win’ negotiated outcome. A term also used in ‘Game Theory’ and Economics. (Lose-Lose Negotiation)

Lose-Win Negotiation: This term refers to a distributive negotiation whereby one party’s gain is another party’s loss. Both parties are competing to get the most value from the negotiation. Also called the ‘fixed-pie’ scenario in that there is only a limited amount to be distributed. A term also used in ‘Game Theory’ and Economics. (Also known as Win - Lose Negotiation). (Lose-Win Negotiation)

Majority Rule: A concept often employed in ‘Group’ or ‘Multi Party’ negotiations to achieve consensus or agreement. As the term implies, a decision or agreement is reached after having been voted upon and decided in favor by a majority of the parties present at the negotiating table (Majority Rule)

Mediation: Mediation usually consists of a negotiation process that employs a ‘mutually agreed’ upon third party to settle a dispute between negotiating parties to find a compatible agreement to resolve disputes. (Mediation)

Merger and Acquisition Negotiation: A negotiation process conducted for the merger or joining of two companies into a single business entity, or the outright purchase of a company by another company. (Merger and Acquisition Negotiation)

Multi Party Negotiation: A negotiation that involves more than two negotiating parties in a negotiation. (Multi Party Negotiation)

Multiple Offers: A technique sometimes employed to offset the possibility of anchoring in an integrative negotiation. Multiple offers are two or more offers or proposals of relatively equal value that are presented simultaneously to invite greater discussion of the issues under negotiation. (Multiple Offers)

Negotiation: An interactive process between two or more parties seeking to find common ground on an issue or issues of mutual interest or dispute where the involved parties seek to make or find a mutually acceptable agreement that will be honored by all the parties concerned. (Negotiation)

Negotiation Agenda: A formal agreed upon list of goals to be achieved or items to be discussed in a particular order during a meeting or negotiation. Agendas can be formal and obvious, or informal and subtle in negotiations. A negotiation agenda can be used to control the negotiation meeting. (Negotiation Agenda)

Negotiation Anchoring: Anchoring is an attempt to establish a reference point (anchor) around which a negotiation will revolve and will often use this reference point to make negotiation adjustments. Anchoring often occurs when the first offer is presented at the beginning of a negotiation. (Negotiation Anchoring)

Negotiation Concessions: Negotiation Concessions are also sometimes referred to as ‘Trade-Offs’ where one or more parties to a negotiation engage in conceding, yielding, or compromising on issues under negotiation and do so either willingly or unwillingly. Negotiation Concessions often include ‘log rolling’. (Negotiation Concessions)

Negotiation Game: Many negotiation training courses make use of negotiation games in order to teach their delegates useful principles of negotiation, psychology or influence in a fun and interactive environment. Some games are played between pairs, whilst others involve a room full of people. The purpose of most negotiation games is to win or avoid losing. Most negotiation games leave the decision of what ‘winning’ or ‘losing’ means to the players. Negotiation role play exercises should not be confused with negotiation games. (Negotiation Game)

Negotiation Logrolling: A negotiation exchange that involves making negotiation concessions or the ‘trading-off’ of issues so as to maximize on each sides’ value. So you will offer the other side something that they value more than you, in exchange for gaining something from them that you value more than they do. (Also: Log Rolling) (Negotiation Logrolling)

Negotiation Meeting: Negotiation meetings are typically where most of the deal is negotiated, with most negotiation meetings being face to face. So the proper planning and effective running of negotiating meetings can make or break a deal. The more complexity involved, the more important getting the negotiation meeting planned correctly becomes. Negotiation meeting factors to plan: Who should and who shouldn’t attend, how long each person need attend, team versus individual attendance, roles and responsibilities Agenda: Who writes the agenda, what issues appear on the agenda and their order Venue: Formal or informal, your office or theirs Length of meeting Framing of the meeting and the main issues Style of negotiation - e.g. collaborative or competitive Staging of meetings - e.g. relationship building may be the priority for the first meeting, and detailed products and services may follow in a later meeting Concession Strategy to make effective trades and not lose value (Negotiation Meeting)

Negotiation Skills: Negotiation skills are requires to negotiate effective deals across a variety of contexts; including different industries, products and services. Negotiation skills are learnable, ‘born negotiators’ are a myth. Effective negotiation requires a variety of skills drawn from different disciplines. Negotiating skills include: communication, persuasion and influence, planning, strategizing, tactics, process and systems, teamwork and many others. Since negotiation requires much face to face interaction, negotiation skills cannot be learned from a book alone. The better negotiation skills learning programs involve a great deal of role plays and feedback discussions. (Negotiation Skills)

Negotiation Strategy: A pre-determined approach or prepared plan of action to achieve a specific goal or objective to potentially find and make an agreement or contract in a negotiation with another party or parties. (See Negotiation Tactics) (Negotiation Strategy)

Negotiation Styles: The most popular way to divide the typical negotiation styles or approaches are: Competing (or Aggressive), Collaborating (or Cooperative), Avoiding, Compromise, Accommodating (Conceding). Most negotiators have one or two preferred negotiation styles. Ideal is to be able to choose to apply the most appropriate negotiation style to each type of negotiation, and to be able to switch negotiating style depending on who you are negotiating with and other important elements of your negotiation context. (Negotiation Styles)

Negotiation Tactics: Negotiation tactics are the detailed methods employed by negotiators to gain an advantage over other parties. Tactics are often deceptive and manipulative and are used to fulfill one party’s goals and objectives - often to the detriment of the other negotiation parties. This makes most tactics in use today ‘win-lose’ by nature. We would like to urge negotiators to only use ethical tactics. We are against using most tactics in principle, and recommend instead that you seek a more collaborative, open and trust building approach wherever possible. It is however worth learning how to identify and defend against tactics. Suggested Manipulative Tactics article. (Negotiation Tactics)

Position: This is the official defined stance or standpoint which will be strongly defended by a negotiator. A position is usually determined by the interests of a negotiating party in the negotiation process. A position is often defined in the contract that a party puts forward or is proposing to their counterpart. (Position)

Principal: The primary decision making authority in a negotiation. Third party agents will often represent the interests or objectives of a principal in a negotiation. (Principal)

Principled Negotiation: Principled Negotiation is an interest-based approach to negotiation that focuses primarily on conflict management and conflict resolution. Principled negotiation uses an integrative approach to finding a mutually shared outcome. First published in the book " Getting to Yes", Principled Negotiation is used mostly in North America and is more popular amongst Academics and Mediators than in Business. Principled Negotiation has become synonymous with the more popular phrase " Win Win " - originally taken from Game Theory. Although Fisher and Ury drew from various disciplines in their 1981 book " Getting to Yes" (including NLP), many Mediation Practitioners and Academics have subsequently contributed in answering the challenging question: How can we best achieve Principled Negotiation in many different contexts? (Principled Negotiation)

Procurement Solutions: Services provided by an internal specialist, vendors or consultants as a service to a business. Provides training, education and input about any procurement procedure as it relates to manufacturing and marketing. Issues of concern may include pricing, technology, cataloguing, discounting, shipping, inventory control, automation and logistics. (Procurement Solutions)

Purchase Order Financing: The assignment of purchase orders by a business to a third party who accepts responsibility for billing and collecting from buyers of the company’s 2019 products. It is a form of expensive financing used to purchase materials required to produce products needed to fulfill a purchase order already received from a buyer. (Purchase Order Financing)

Rapport: When two or more parties achieve an agreement through the building of trust, establish a friendly relationship, or have a sense of mutual understanding. A successful business client relationship conducted through a negotiation is one example of a rapport. (Rapport)

Reciprocation: The act of making a similar or like exchange of something in return for something given by one party to another party. In a negotiation, this could entail an exchange of information and/or an exchange of concessions between the negotiating parties. (Reciprocation)

Reservation Price: The reservation price is the least favorable point at which one will accept a negotiated agreement. For example, for a seller this means the least amount (minimum) or bottom line they would be prepared to accept, while for a buyer it would mean the most (maximum) or bottom line that they would be prepared to pay. It is also sometimes referred to as the ‘walk away’ point. (Reservation Price)

Risk-Averse: A low level or approach in the amount of risk that a negotiator is prepared to accept in a negotiation. A negotiator who decides to accept the " sure thing" where a result is certain to be achieved is said to be " risk-averse", and is not willing to gamble further on a potential negotiated result. (Risk-Averse)

Risk-Seeking: A high level or approach in the amount of risk that a negotiator is prepared to accept in a negotiation.. A negotiator who decides to gamble rather than accept the ‘sure thing’, and who has the expectation that they will gain more in a negotiation is said to be ‘risk-seeking’. (Risk-Seeking)

Salary Negotiation: Salary negotiation is a process where one party negotiates the amount of their pay, income, earnings, commission, salary, wages, wage remuneration, annual review, or salary raise with another party. (Salary Negotiation)

Target: See ‘Aspiration’ (Target)

Trade-Off: Also sometimes referred to as a ‘Concession’ where one or more parties to a negotiation engage in conceding, yielding, or compromising on issues under negotiation and do so either willingly or unwillingly. (Trade-Off)

Trading Plan: A negotiation trading plan is a table or spreadsheet that sets out which goals / positions / tradable you are going to exchange or trade with the other party. A trading plan is an essential part of negotiation preparation, especially for complex negotiations. Trading plans should not only identify the goals of each party, trading plans should also rank these goals for each party and set out which goals you want to trade together. The Negotiation Experts clients are trained to use a trading plan after having prepared a SWOT analysis, and to plan a negotiation agenda using your trading plan. A trading plan is often referred to by the less accurate name of a ‘Concession Strategy’. (Trading Plan)

Unanimity Rule: A process often employed in ‘Group’ or ‘Multi Party’ negotiations to reach a decision or agreement by the involved negotiating parties. A unanimous decision is only achieved when all the negotiating parties are in total accord in making a decision or an agreement. (Unanimity Rule)

Walk Away: Walk away is the alternative that a negotiator will act on if they are not successful in a negotiation. A walk away may be an alternative supplier or buyer, to manufacture the product or deliver the service in-house, to wait or simply do nothing i.e. to go without. The walk away answers the negotiation question: " What will you do if you don’t agree this deal? " (Walk Away)

Win-Lose Negotiation: This term refers to a distributive negotiation whereby one party’s gain is another party’s loss. Both parties are competing to get the most value from the negotiation. Also called the ‘fixed-pie’ scenario in that there is only a limited amount to be distributed. A term also used in ‘Game Theory’ and Economics. (Also known as Lose-Win Negotiation). (Win-Lose Negotiation)

Win-Win Negotiation: A win-win negotiation settlement is an integrative negotiated agreement. In theory this means the negotiating parties have reached an agreement after fully taking into account each others’ interests, such that the agreement cannot be improved upon further by any other agreement. By definition, there are no resources or ‘gold’ left on the table and all creative options have been thoroughly exploited. " Win-Win" has its roots in Economics Game Theory. (Win-Win Negotiation)

Winners Curse: Occurs when an under aspiring negotiator sets their target or aspirations (goals or objectives) too low at the outset of a negotiation and is granted an immediate agreement by their negotiating counterpart. (Winners Curse)

ZOPA: An acronym which means Zone of Possible Agreement. It is the range or area in which an agreement is satisfactory to both parties involved in the negotiation process. Often referred to as the " Contracting Zone". ZOPA or the Contracting Zone is essentially the range between each parties real base or bottom lines, and is the overlap area in the low and high range that each party is willing to pay or find acceptable in a negotiation. (ZOPA)

APPENDIX VIII

BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE

Useful phrases and vocabularyin letter writing

Opening Phrases

Dear Madam,	Уважаемаягоспожа!
Dear Sir,	Уважаемыйгосподин!
Dear Mister Malforn,	УважаемыйгосподинМалфорн!
Dear Sirs,	Уважаемые господа!
We have received your letter of…	Мы получили ваше письмо от...
We thank you for your letter of…	Спасибо за письмо от...
We have the pleasure to inform you…	Мы рады сообщить вам...
In reply to your letter of…	В ответ на ваше письмо от...
To inform you…	Сообщаем вам...
We apologize for the delay in…	Просим прощения за задержку...
Answering your letter…	Отвечая на ваше письмо...
With reference to (Referring to our letter of … we wish to inform you that …	Ссылаясь на ваше письмо от... сообщаем, что...
We are sorry (We regret) to have to remind you that …	К сожалению, вынуждены напомнить Вам, что...
We offer apologies for the delay in answering your letter.	Просим извинения за некоторою задержку с ответом на Ваше письмо.
We are sorry we are unable to meet your request …	К сожалению, мы не сможем удовлетворить вашу просьбу о...
Further to our letter of …	В дополнение к нашему письму от...
We have to remind you that …	Мы вынуждены напомнить вам, что...
We have pleasure in offering you …	Имеем удовольствие предложить Вам...
We enclose (are enclosing) a copy of a letter from … about …(in connection with …)	Прилагаем копию письма фирмы... по поводу... (в связи...)

Linking Phrases

There is no doubt that…	Несомненно,...
It is necessary to note…	Необходимо отметить, что...
We’d like to draw your attention to the fact…/We would like you to note that …/We wish to bring to you notice that …	Обращаем ваше внимание на тот факт, что...
Considering the above said…	Принимая во внимание сказанное,...
In this connection…	В связи с этим...
In connection with your request…	В связи с вашей просьбой...
Otherwise we shall have to…	В противном случае мы будем вынуждены...
Up till now we have received no reply.	Что касается вашей просьбы... Вашей просьбы (Вашего заказа, Вашей претензии)
In case of delay…	До настоящего времени мы не получим ответа.
In case of your refusal…	В случае задержки...
In case you fail to make payments…	В случае вашего отказа...
It is self-understood …/ It goes without saying The matter is …/The point is …	В случае невыплаты...
In view of the above (said) …	Само собой разумеется... Дело в том, что...
In connection with the above (said) …	Ввиду вышеизложенного...
In our opinion …/We believe …/We think …/We feel …	В связи c вышеизложенным...
To avoid delay in…	По нашему мнению...
In accordance with (under) the contract enclosed …	Во избежание задержки в...
You state (write, are writing) in your letter that …	В соответствии с прилагаемым контрактом...
Further you write …	В Вашем письме Вы заявляете, что...
Moreover …	Далее вы пишите...
Nevertheless …	Более того...
Besides …	Тем не менее...
	Кроме того...

Closing Phrases

We are looking forward to receiving your consent/approval/confirmation.	Ждем вашего согласия/одобрения/подтверждения.
Your prompt execution of our order would be appreciated.	Будем вам благодарны за быстрое выполнение нашего заказа.
We wish to maintain cooperation with you.	Надеемся поддерживать сотрудничество.
Your early reply will be appreciated.	Будем вам благодарны за быстрый ответ.
We are looking forward to hearing from you.	Надеемся получить от вас ответ в самое ближайшее время.
If we can be of any assistance, please do not hesitate to contact us.	Просим незамедлительно обращаться к нам, если вам потребуется помощь.
Yours faithfully…	С уважением...
Yours sincerely…	С уважением...
Your early reply will be appreciated	Мы будем признательны за быстрый ответ
We are looking forward to hearing from you	Надеемся получить Ваш ответ в ближайшем будущем
Please, inform us (let know) in the shortest possible time (at your earliest convenience)	Просим сообщить нам как можно скорее
We would like to assure you …	Мы хотели бы заверить Вас...
We wish to maintain cooperation with you	Надеемся продолжать сотрудничать с Вами
Yours faithfully/Faithfully yours/Yours truly Truly sincerely/Sincerely yours	С уважением

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30. Назарова, Т.Б. Английский язык делового общения: учеб. пособие. / Т.Б. Назарова. – М.: ООО «Изд-во Астрель», 2009. – 272 с.

31. Письменная, О.А. Английский для офиса / О.А. Письменная // Unit 28 WritingBusinessLetters. – К.: ООО “ИП Логос”, 2004. – С. 110-114.

32. Плужник, И.Л. Английский язык для аспирантов и научных работников: учеб. пособие / И.Л. Плужник, С.С. Рачева. – Тюмень: Издательство ТюмГУ, 2004. – 132с.

33. Поуви, Дж. GetitRight: Говорите правильно по-английски / Дж. Поуви. –

34. Русско-английский и англо-русский словарь: по системе С. Флеминг: обновленный состав более 40 000 слов.— Изд. 2-е, испр. — СПб.: Виктория плюс, 2010*.— 766 с.

Словари и справочники:

35. Солодушкина, К. А.Englishphrasalverbsinthelanguageofbusiness: словарь для студентов и преподавателей экономических вузов / авт.-сост.: К. А. Солодушкина.— СПб.: Антология, 2005. — 189 с.

СПб.: Изд-во «Антология», 2008. –176 с.

36. Справочник по английскому языку / А. Кейпл [и др.]. – М.: ООО «Изд-во Астрель», 2003. – 366 с.

37. Федорова, Л.М. Английский язык для специальных целей: учеб. пособие для вузов / Л.М. Федорова, С.Н. Никитаев, И.В. Баженова. – М.: Изд-во «Экзамен», 2005. – 192 с.

38. Филатов, Е.М. Коммерческая и деловая переписка без словаря / Е.М. Филатов. – М.: Внешторгиздат, 1993. – 64 с.

39. Феличиа, Х. Иностранный для бизнеса: пособие по коммерческому английскому языку / Х. Феличиа. – М.: Изд-во Эксмо, 2005. – 192с.

Интернет- сайты:

40. http: //dictionary.reference.com/

41. http: //owl.english.purdue.edu/

42. http: //thesaurus.reference.com/анный

43. http: //writesite.cuny.edu/

44. http: //www.essaypunch.com

45. http: //www.geocities.com/soho/atrium/1437/index.html

46. http: //www.insead.edu/home/

47. http: //www.meetingwizard.org/meetings/how-to-plan-a-meeting.com

48. http: //www.negotiations.com/articles/negotiation-types/

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