CONIFEROUS AND DECIDUOUS FORESTS

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1) Coniferous and deciduous forests are two of the tree major types of forest. Life in the two areas has developed very differently, due to the differences in climate.

2) Coniferous are so called because their seeds are produced in cones. Vast coniferous forests of spruce, cedar, larch, pine and fir are found where conditions are cold and harsh, with brief summers and low rainfall, i.e. northern parts of America, Europe and Asia and in the world’s mountainous areas. Further south, conifers exist alongside deciduous trees in mixed forests.

3) Most conifers have needles instead of leaves (their smaller surface area means less water is lost by evaporation) and the majority are evergreen (never bare of needles), so they can produce food all year round.

4) The word deciduous describes trees that shed their leaves once a year. They are flowering plants, mainly blooming once a year in the spring. Deciduous forests are found in areas with relatively mild temperatures and plenty of rainfall throughout the year. Most of Europe, Japan, eastern Asia and the eastern USA were once covered in forests of deciduous trees, like oak, beech, maple and ash.

5) Deciduous trees have large, broad leaves to make the most of the many months of sunshine for photosynthesis. They are lost before winter when strong winds and cold would damage them. Each tree provides homes and food for a large wildlife community. Rich soil and plenty of sunshine allow many different plants to flourish. These support still more animal life.

► Fill in the gaps with the words from the text.

1. …….. forest	5. …….. areas	9. …….. winds
2. …….. forest	6. …….. plants	10. …….. community
3. …….. rainfall	7. …….. temperatures
4. …….. summer	8. …….. of rainfall

5.14. Find the words in the text which have the same meaning as:

main, adj (passage 1)	territory, n (passage 2)	destruct, v (passage 5)
severe, adj (passage 2)	blooming, adj (passage 4)	big, adj (passage 5)

5.15. Answer the following questions.

1. What four types of forests can you name?

2. What is the basic difference between conifers and deciduous trees?

3. Where can we find coniferous / deciduous forests in the world?

4. Explain the word evergreens.

5. Why do deciduous trees lose their leaves?

6. How can you describe a mixed forest?

5.16. Match the two parts of the sentences.

1. In Southern Europe many deciduous trees have adapted to very hot, dry summers by taking coniferous features,	a) the destruction of important natural habitats.
2. Urban expansion, intensive industry, agriculture and forestry are resulting in	b) that is, able to keep their body temperature constant.
3. Some animals have adapted to live in the forest all year round, e.g.	c) pure white in winter, browny-red in summer.
4. Polar bears survive the winter by hibernating	d) now they are evergreen with small thick leaves to save water.
5. To survive the cold, all the large animals are warm-blooded,	e) and are protected by their thick coats of fur.
6. Huskies curt into balls to conserve heat	f) like hawks and falcons.
7. An arctic fox changes its colour to fit the season:	g) bears and chipmunks hibernate in winter, living off summer fat.
8. Hot, dry deserts have short periods when life is plentiful,	h) hollowed out under the ice.
9. Predators are animals that catch and eat other animals and	i) with individuals playing specific role.
10. Other common predators are the birds of prey,	j) for safety in numbers.
11. Many seabirds like penguins form colonies	k) they play a vital role in every ecosystem.
12. Some creatures like ants and bees form complex colonies	l) so desert plants are short-lived.

5.17. Match each plant from the list below with the type of forest it belongs to. Use a dictionary if necessary.

Forests: deciduous, coniferous

Plants: Pine, fir, juniper, willow, cedar, birch, aspen, ash, larch, spruce, lime, maple, oak, poplar

● What trees are common in our region?

5.18. Read the text Siberia’s Fauna Is Amazingly Rich and decide whether the statements after the text are true (T) or false (F).

SIBERIA’S FAUNA IS AMAZINGLY RICH

There are many species of fauna in the vast expanses of tundra, taiga and water-meadows, the numerous rivers and lakes. Scientists have registered 74 species of mammals on the territory of the region, more than 320 species of birds, 4 species of reptiles, 5 species of amphibian and over 40 species of fish.

In the tundra are the reindeer, polar fox, lemming and many species of birds. On the islands and mainland one finds the polar bear, and in the coastal waters, the Bay of Ob and other bays the sea hare, the ringed seal and the white whale. Further south in the tundra the wolf and the wolverine are common.

The animal world of the taiga is even richer: the squirrel, white hare, chipmunk and letyaga, as well as the brown bear, fox, marten, sable, lynx, weasel, Siberian pole cat, badger, wolf and wolverine. The pride of the taiga is the moose. The mole and musk-rat are widespread and there are many colonies of the water rat and the Asiatic beaver, which have survived in Malaya Sosva and Demyanka. The zone is also being energetically settled with imported American mink.

The taiga is full of birds. Here you will find the wood-grouse, hazel-grouse, black grouse, nutcracker, osprey, great grey owl, Tengmalm’s owl and pygmy owl and in marshes the willow grouse, crane and great snipe. The old beds of rivers and lakes are densely populated with ducks, snipes and gulls. The trumpeter swan nests here, as do the red-throated and black-throated loon and the red-necked sheldrake.

The forest-steppe is the home of the stoat and fox, the mountain hare and Siberian polecat, the steppe polecat, the badger, the musk-rat, the black grouse, the quail, the hazel-grouse and various species of water-fowl. The wild goat and moose are found here, and also their constant companion – the wolf.

Many of the animals in the Tyumen Region are hunted for commercial purposes. There is also a great deal of commercial fishing here. There is world-wide demand for the Siberian sturgeon, white salmon, muksun, peled (syrok), Siberian whitefish. Ide, dace, roach, pike, perch and crucian are popular on the local market.

► 1. The vegetation and wildlife of Siberia is very rich.

2. There are 320 species of mammals.

3. Island and mainland have the same meaning.

4. The pride of taiga is the hare.

5. Malaya Sosva is being energetically settled with imported American marten.

6. The forest-steppe is the home of various species of water-fowl.

7. The wolf lives everywhere.

8. The commercial fishing is very developed.

9. You can buy herring on the local markets.

5.19. Find the odd word out.

a) bay coast lake river

b) salmon whitefish snipe pike

c) rat sable lynx marten

d) black grouse mountain hair brown bear red fox

e) wild goat water rat great snipe wood-grouse

f) tundra meadow steppe taiga

5.20. Answer the following questions:

1. Can you name 4 types of the grouse and 3 types of the owl?

2. Where do polar bears live?

3. How many species of fish are registered?

4. What birds nest here?

5. Who inhabits the old beds of rivers?

6. What is the difference between the tundra fox and steppe fox?

7. Where can we see seals and whales?

8. Have you ever seen squirrels and chipmunks in the environment?

5.21. Fill in the table with the words from the text Siberia’s Fauna Is Amazingly Rich (activity 5.18).

Siberian mammals	Siberian birds	Siberian fish	Siberian reptiles and amphibia

5.22. Read the text below and do the exercises after each part.

THE RICHNESS AND DIVERSITY OF RUSSIA’S

NATURAL RESOURCES

■ Russian Arctic regions stretch from the North Pole to the border of the Eurasian continent. Ice is the major feature of the Arctic. Climatic conditions here are extremely harsh, even in summer air temperature approaches 0˚ C. Snow is the only form of precipitation the year round. During the long winter months the Arctic is submerged in stark darkness, while in summer the sun never passes below the horizon.

In spite of the unfavourable environment life still exists in the Arctic. Mosses, lichens, creeping and dwarf shrubs are to be found growing on the shallow arctic soils of the islands scattered in the Arctic Ocean. The sea is habitat of about 200 species of algae and abounds in animal plankton.

Loons and gulls build their nests on the rocks, forming great colonies. Among the typical for this zone mammals mention should be made of walruses, seals, killer whales, whalebone whales, lemmings, and Arctic foxes. White bear has long been the symbol of the Arctic.

► 1. Which words in the passage have the same meaning as:

severe, adj common, adj create, v

area, n bush, n?

2. What do 200 species refer to?

3. How do you pronounce the following: algae, walrus, horizon?

4. What is the dominant feature of the Arctic landscape?

5. Which words in the passage have the opposite meaning to:

above, adv short, adj lose, v?

6. Are lemmings predators?

7. What is the symbol of the Arctic?

8. Explain the meaning of the words mosses and lichens.

9. How do you understand the meaning of the verb abound?

■ The tundra occupies a vast area. In the European part it only skirts the seashore, while in Siberia it extends as far as 500 km deep into the mainland.

Strong winds are characteristic of the tundra. Winter is long and cold; summer is short, with frequent and prolonged drizzles. Most of the tundra is in the permafrost zone. A typical tundra landscape features a waterlogged plain with numerous shallow ponds.

The tundra environment is monotonously unvaried. Plant life is represented essentially by mosses and lichens.

During the short period of vegetation the green land plants and algae in the innumerable ponds produce organic matter in quantities sufficient to feed thousands of migrating birds (geese, ducks, sandpipers, etc.), and endemic mammals (reindeer, Arctic foxes, lemmings, etc.). Water bodies in the tundra abound in fish (salmons are prevalent).

The people living in this zone are engaged in pasture reindeer-breeding and fur and feather production.

► 1. Which words in the passage have the same meaning as:

stretch, v vegetation, n water reservoir, n dominant, adj?

2. What does 500km refer to?

3. How do you pronounce the following: monotonously, unvaried, sufficient?

4. What characterizes the tundra?

5. Which words in the passage have the opposite meaning to:

shallow, adj long, adj seldom, adj vegetation, n?

6. What are people engaged in?

7. Explain the meaning of the words permafrost and breeding.

■ The tundra is fringed in the south by a narrow strip of the forest-tundra, which is a kind of transitory zone between the tundra and the taiga.

The species composition of sparse growth varies in different parts of the forest-tundra: birch on the Kola Peninsula, spruce to the east as far as the Urals, and larch in Siberia.

The forest-tundra is populated by all typical for the tundra animals, but there are also animals common for the taiga (greater-spotted woodpecker, wood-grouse, hazel-grouse, brown bear, elk, etc.).

Reindeer-breeding, hunting and berry-picking make up this zone’s economy.

► 1. Which words in the passage have the same meaning as:

sort, n various, adj fauna, n?

2. Where is forest-taiga located?

3. What animals are the most popular?

4. What are people engaged in?

■ The taiga extends from the forest-tundra margin to the line Moscow-Ufa-Yekaterinburg-Omsk-Krasnoyarsk in the south (taking in the Altai and the Sayan) all along Russia from its western borders to Kamchatka and Sakhalin. The taiga landscape is uniform and stern. The major tree species in the forests are larch, spruce, pine, Siberian cedar, and silver fir. In some places the gloomy colours of boreal coniferous forests are enlivened by the lighter spots of birch groves, in others the coniferous are mixed with aspen and alder. Pine forests grow on dry sand soils.

Life conditions in the taiga are rather hard – in summer air temperature may happen to be +35…+38˚ C; in winter –50˚ C. Fauna in the taiga is much more varied than in the tundra. There are voles, flying squirrel, greater-spotted and black woodpeckers, crossbill, common viper, etc. The taiga forests are the main source of fur (sable, beaver, squirrel, fox, mountain hare). The taiga is also the major supplier of timber.

At its south-western border the taiga gradually gives way to mixed coniferous-deciduous forest in which further to the west and south the conifers are replaced by broad-leaved species (oak, maple, lime, ash, elm). Here lie the vast expanses of mixed and broad-leaved forests of the European part of Russia. This area has sufficient moisture throughout the year, summer is rather warm and winter not too frigid. The following animals are typical for the European broad-leaved forests: marten, European mink, wild boar, roe deer, golden oriole, common nightingale, bear, badger, hedgehog, bats.

► 1. Which words in the passage have the same meaning as:

dark, adj main, adj slowly, adv

wet, adj wood, n cold, adj?

2. What do –50˚ C refer to?

3. How do you pronounce the following: species, coniferous, deciduous, throughout?

4. Can you show on the map the extension of the taiga in Russia?

5. Do Siberian and European forests differ? Give examples.

■ The forest-steppe is a transitory zone featuring a whole complex of forest and steppe species. Along with marten, squirrel and elk there are ground squirrels and marmots; kestrels, wood larks and grey warblers build their nests in the thickness of trees and bushes, while the steppe is inhabited by steppe eagles, quails and skylarks.

The forest-steppe is highly fertile. In western areas 70-80% of land is under crop.

Today almost all steppe lands are turned into ploughland and are in fact a big cornfield interrupted only occasionally by small patches of wild nature.

The latter host such steppe birds as bustard, little bustard, steppe eagle, skylark, also ground squirrel and other animals.

A forestation and irrigation aimed at “softening” this zone’s climate bring in considerable changes in the natural conditions of the steppes, attracting forest animals and plants and generally improving life environment.

► 1. Which words in the passage have the same meaning as:

nowadays, adv factually, adv sometimes, adv part, n?

2. What does 80% refer to?

3. Explain the meaning of the words ploughland, forestation.

4. What improves the environment of the forest-steppe and why?

■ Much space between the steppe zone and the Caspian Sea is under semi-desert. Winter is rather cold here (mean January air temperature is about

–10˚ C), spring is short, and the long summer is hot and dry (mean July temperature is normally +22…+25˚ C). The open spaces of sun-parched land, covered in places by a low growth of wormwood are spotted with bitter lakes and solonchaks.

Deserts are to be found only in the southern part of the Caspian Depression: to the east from the Volga delta is the sagebrush-fescue desert; to the west, the sandy desert.

► 1. Which words in the passage have the same meaning as:

territory, n severe, adj salty, adj?

2. What do –10˚ C refer to?

3. Explain the word solonchak.

4. Describe the seasons in semi-deserts.

■ The southern part of the Krasnodar Territory is a narrow strip of coastal land between the Caucasian Mountains and the Black Sea. These are the subtropics: both dry and humid subtropics are to be found on the territory of Russia.

Oaks, oriental hornbeam, cornel, juniper, pistachio, and other drought-resistant xerophytes grow in dry subtropics. There are quite a number of animals representative of Mediterranean fauna (mollusks, reptiles, birds).

More typical of humid subtropics are chestnut and beech, the evergreen laurel, yew, box, etc. Among the animals and birds one can mention common marten, Caucasian squirrel, wild cat, short-toed tree creeper and also such Caucasian subspecies of birds as coal tit, hedge sparrow, wren, red-breast, and others.

Subtropics of Russia are famous for their excellent health resorts.

► 1. What species of flora and fauna can be found in the subtropics and can’t be found in Western Siberia?

2. Name all climatic zones mentioned in the text The Richness and Diversity of Russian’s Natural Resources.

5.23. Read the text In the Estuary of the Lena and give the review of it. (See Unit 11).

IN THE ESTUARY OF THE LENA

The delta of the Lena, a major Siberian river, is a labyrinth of channels and islands whose territory totals 32, 000 sq. km. Since 1985, a part of it has been declared a wildlife preserve. Together with the neighbouring Kharaulakh Ridge the preserve’s area amounts to 14, 330 sq km.

The Yakutian coast of the Arctic Ocean, where the preserve is located, is known for its severe climate; people rarely settle there. Yet, few as they are, hunters’ and fishermen’s communities have done much to ruin the environment for the indigenous delta inhabitants. As a result, not only food-fish, game-birds and fur animals but other species, too, have dramatically decreased in number. The total of swans and geese in the past two decades has been cut down by 600 and 300 per cent respectively; at present the Lena can boast 156-fold less whitefish than half a century ago. Small wonder that experts in tundra studies insisted upon making the delta of the Lena a wildlife preserve, and the authorities responded to their reasoning.

Almost half of the preserve’s territory is covered by plain and mountainous tundra – shrubby, grassy and rocky. There are many swamps, some of them typical of coastal areas of northern Asia – from a helicopter they look like enamel polygons separated from each other by rollers of clay and peat; they owe their existence to the ground ice.

The preserve is criss-crossed with channels and branches of the river; in summer, together with numerous lakes on the islands, they attract diverse water-fowl.

Winters are as cold and long, as everywhere else north of the Arctic Circle; only a hundred days a year there is no snow. By average indications the weather in the delta of the Lena is even more unwelcoming than in the “freezers” of the Northern Hemisphere – Yakutia’s Verkhoyansk and Oimyakon. Summers are cool and short, yet sufficient for the green and vibrant celebration of life: yellow polar poppies, carpets of pinkish-lilac carnations…The strength of life is indomitable: the stems of the blossoming pasque-flower struggle their way even through the snow.

Few people know that the tundra is home for some trees, too. There are even groves of one of the larch species in some places. The maximum height for such trees is three metres. Nearly 400 species of higher plants (86 among them are rare ones) grow in the preserve.

As for fauna, the preserve is inhabited by 94 species of birds and 29 – of mammals (five of them live in the sea). The preserve has given shelter to such rare animals as the polar bear, Laptev’s walrus, unicorn fish, sea hare, beluga, and in the mountainous part of it – to the polar ram and black marmot.

Nesting in the preserve are pink sea-gulls, black brants and smaller swans – birds which have been taken under special protection. To restore the former number of fish, birds and animals entered in the Red Books of all ranks is one of the major objectives of the preserve.

Experts are studying the valuable whitefish, nelma and other fishes of the same species, the biology of frostfish and the Pacific herring all the year round. The preserve is a vintage treasure-trove for ornithologists and botanists.

5.24. Complete the sentences about pets with the words from the box.

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