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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
ADJECTIVES AND ADJECTIVAL PHRASES
3.1 Adjectival phrases An adjectival phrase is a phrase with a single adjective, as in ‘(He is) happy’ or with an adjective and one or more adjuncts, as in ‘(He is) so very happy’. An adverb or adverbial expression that emphasises the meaning of an adjective is called an intensifier: very, rather, somewhat, terribly, etc. Normally an intensifier used with an adjective that precedes a noun comes just before the adjective: e.g. very difficult. The intensifier enough follows an adjective: e.g. difficult enough. When the adjectival phrase modifies a noun the intensifiers quite and rather usually come before the indefinite article (e.g. quite a difficult decision, rather a surprising remark), though they may be also preceded by it (e.g. a quite fundamental disagreement, a rather hard man); but they always follow other noun determiners (e.g. two quite difficult decisions, those rather surprising remarks). The intensifiers too, so, a bit are used before adjectives only when the latter function as predicatives: e.g. These shoes are too/so/a bit large. Some intensifiers used before adjectives functioning as predicatives are typical only of informal style and do not occur in formal language. I’m kind of tired today; That sounds sort of strange. There are a number of intensifiers - certain noun phrases (most of them informal) and adverbs - which precede the comparative forms of adjectives: much, far, a good bit/lot, a good deal/a great deal, lots, rather, somewhat, a little, a (little) bit: e.g. much larger; far more beautiful, a good deal better, somewhat more careful. The comparative may be also premodified by no and not any. This house is no bigger/not any bigger than the other. The inflectional superlative may be premodified by very: e.g. the very best. If very premodifies the superlative, a determiner is obligatory, as in ‘She put on her very best dress’. Comparatives and superlatives can also be postmodified by intensifying phrases, the most common of which is by far: He is funnier/funniest by far. The superlative is also followed by possible and imaginable: e.g. the largest thing possible, the most difficult task imaginable. Note: Here is the most common order of adjectives in the English noun phrase, though the order of adjectives of size, shape, age, and colour can change.
3.2 Characteristics of the adjective The adjective is a word which describes a person or thing denoted by the noun. Semantically, adjectives fall into two classes: qualitative (little, large, high, soft, warm, etc) which denote qualities of size, shape, colour, etc, that may vary in degree and relative which denote qualities of a substance indirectly, through their relation to materials (silken, woolen, wooden, etc), to place (Italian, Asian, etc), to time (monthly, weekly, etc). The only grammatical category of adjectives which has survived into Modern English is that of comparison. There are three degrees of comparison -the positive (absolute), the comparative, the superlative. Degrees of comparison are found only with qualitative adjectives which denote qualities varying in intensity (tall-taller-tallest). Syntactically, the adjective may function in the sentence as attribute (e.g. The reporter settled on the nearest chair) and predicative (e.g. The girl looked unhappy). 3.3 Comparison The comparative and superlative degrees may be expressed synthetically (with the help of the suffixes - er, -est ) and analytically (with the help of the auxiliaries more, most ). The suffixes -er, -est are added to one-syllable adjectives (1); most two-syllable adjectives ending in - y, ow, -er, ure, consonant + le, where [1] is syllabic (2); disyllabics accented upon the last syllable (3); some widely used disyllabics (4).
In case of the above mentioned disyllabics, English usage permits a choice between the two ways of comparison: e.g. common - commoner/more common - commonest/most common, mature - maturer/more mature - maturest/most mature. Note also peculiar uses of degrees of comparison: on the near bank/side – на этом берегу, по эту сторону; in the (very) near future – в (самом) ближайшем будущем; on near(er)/close(r) examination, consideration – при ближайшем рассмотрении; in one’s late(r) years – в конце жизни; a later train – один из следующих поездов; further instructions – дальнейшие указания; farther/further end – дальний конец; the further side of the street – другая сторона улицы. 3.4 Spelling rules If the suffixes - er, -est are added to adjectives ending in - y preceded by a consonant, the y is replaced by i: dry-drier-driest, easy-easier-easiest, happy-happier-happiest. But: shy-shyer-shyest, sly-slyer-slyest (where the y belongs to the root of the word). Adjectives ending in e drop this letter before - er, -est: wise-wiser-wisest, concise-conciser-concisest. Monosyllables which end in a single consonant preceded by a short vowel double this consonant before - er, -est: big-bigger-biggest, fat-fatter-fattest. Note also: cruel-crueller-cruellest.
3.5 Irregular forms of comparison A few monosyllabic adjectives do not follow the rule given in 3.3. They are good/well, bad, little, far. Their comparatives and superlatives are suppletive, i.e. they are formed from different roots: good/well - better -best; bad - worse - worst; little - less - least; far -farther/further - farthest/furthest. The adjectives OLD, LATE, NEAR, FAR have two sets of comparatives and superlatives: one of them is made up of regular forms and the other comprises forms with a vowel change.
old elder, eldest (used with reference to seniority or restricted to family relations) e.g. elder statesman - старейший и заслуженный государственный деятель Не is my elder in service. - Он старше меня по должности; my elder brother, the eldest son.
late latter, last (used with reference to order) Used before nouns, latter means ‘recent’ (e.g. the latter day saints - современные святые) or ‘belonging to the end of a period’ (e.g. in the latter part of the year – последние месяцы года). Cf: the latest news/dances, a later version – позднейшая/более поздняя редакция; the last word, the latter part of the week/book – вторая половина недели, последняя часть книги. As an archaism latter with the meaning ‘final’ is used in set phrases: the latter end = death, the Latter Day = Doomsday.
near - next (used with reference to order) Cf: Where’s the nearest post-office? The next train leaves at 5.10 next Monday, next week.
far further, furthest (used with reference to time and distance). Either farther-farthest or further-furthest can be used with reference to distance, though farther-farthest is preferred as attribute in that sense in traditional grammar: e.g. The statue stands at the farther end of the garden. Further as attribute is preferred in the sense of ‘another or something that will follow’: e.g. a further example, (after) a further search, further details, (without) further delay, (until) further notice. Note: ‘Older’ not ‘elder’ is used when followed by ‘than’: e.g. My brother is two years older than me. Notice the use of a double comparative with ‘lesser’ in the following phrases: ‘the lesser of the evils’ -меньшее из зол; ‘the lesser breaches of the law’ - мелкие нарушения закона; ‘the Lesser Bear’ - Малая Медведица; ‘the Lesser Asia’ - Малая Азия. 3.6 Analytical forms of comparison All disyllabic adjectives other than those enumerated above and adjectives with three or more syllables form the comparative and superlative analytically: famous - more famous - most famous, interesting - more interesting - most interesting. While longer adjectives, such as comfortable, expensive are not compared with - er, -est, any adjective can optionally be compared with more and most when emphasis is not on the comparison but on the idea expressed by the adjective itself: e.g. Little by little, the farmer became more rich. Notes: [a] In compound adjectives the first element forms the comparative and superlative synthetically if the two elements retain their individual meaning: e.g. deep-rooted, deeper-rooted, deepest-rooted; well-known, better-known, best-known. Analytical forms are also used: e.g. more deep-rooted, most deep-rooted; more well-known, most well-known. [b] Like superlative in form but different in function is the so-called ‘elative’, which stands for a very high degree of a quality: e.g. It’s a most extraordinary thing (= it’s extremely extraordinary and that it is more extraordinary than all others). In such a case the adverb ‘most’ is unstressed or medium-stressed, whereas in the analytical superlative of an adjective the auxiliary ‘most’ and the adjective have even stress.
3.7 Constructions with comparison
(1) Comparison of equal is expressed by as... as - for positive comparison and not as... as or not so... as - for negative comparison. A boy of 16 is often as tall as his father; A grape is not so (as) big as an orange. (2) Comparison of two unequal persons or things is expressed by the comparative with than. A mountain is higher than a hill. To show that one exceeds the other several times two constructions are used: (a) twice/three, etc/ several times as Adj posit as. .. His friends are twice as young as he is. (b) twice/three, etc/ several times the Adjsuper1 (than)... A guinea a visit -it was three times the largest he had ever earned! (3) To say that two changes happen together, we can use comparatives with the ( the Adjcomp ... the Adjcomp ), where the correlative the is a survival of the old instrumental case of the demonstrative (cf. in Russian ‘чем... тем...’). The bigger the house is, the more expensive it will be. Notes: [a] When ‘than’ or ‘as’ is followed by a 3rd person pronoun, we usually repeat the verb (e.g. We are taller than they are; I am not as clever as he is). When ‘than’ or ‘as’ is followed by a 1st or 2nd person pronoun, it is common to omit the verb (e.g. He is better educated than I; I am not as young as you). [b] A survival of the old instrumental case of the demonstrative is also found in the following phrases: the Adjcomp (e.g. If you don’t withdraw and apologize, it will be the worse for you); all the Adjcomp (e.g. Now it will be all the easier to deceive him - Теперь будет еще легче обмануть его); so/very much the Adj (e.g. It’s so much the worse for you - Тем хуже для тебя); no/(none the) Adjcomp (e.g. She was no worse for it - Ей от этого хуже не стало; He was none the worse for these experiences - Эти переживания никак на нем не отразились).
3.8 Adjectives and adverbs Certain items that function as adjectives are also used to define in some way the process denoted by the verb; this is a typical use of adverbs (e.g. He spoke loud and clear). These adverbs with adjective form are mostly connected with time, position and direction.
There is a group of -ly-adjectives, which are homonymous with corresponding adverbs: friendly, kindly, lively, etc. Deadly: deadly poison; the seven deadly sins; The play was deadly; beastly: What beastly weather! cowardly: cowardly behaviour; a cowardly lie; stately: stately bearing, a stately bow; the stately homes of England. In some cases adverbs have the same forms as adjectives; in other cases two different adverbs are derived from the same adjective. Adverbs which have the same form as adjectives: Close, dead, fast, fine, long, low, pretty, short, straight, wide, wrong. Common adverbs from the same base, with different meanings:
3.9 Adjective and participle Some adjectives have the same form as participles, e.g. His views were very surprising; The man seemed very offended. These adjectives can also be attributes, e.g. his surprising views, the offended man. Often the difference between the adjective and the participle is not obvious, and lies in the verbal force retained by the latter. It is clear that an ‘-ing’ form is a present participle and not an adjective when a direct object is present. You are surprising me. Similarly, the verbal force is indicated for the past participle when a ‘by’-phrase containing a personal agent is present. The man was offended by the policeman. For both ‘-ed’ and ‘-ing’ forms, modification by the adverb very clearly indicates that the forms are adjectives. His views were very alarming; The man was very offended.
3.10 Statives There is a subclass of adjectives beginning with a which denote a passing state of a person or thing: alive, asleep, atremble, afire, aflame, afloat, etc. The a -adjectives, or the so-called statives, take no degrees of comparison. Syntactically, they are characterized by a predominantly predicative use. They occur after the verb be and other link verbs as seem, feel, keep, etc. The patient was afraid; He soon fell asleep; She kept aloof. Some statives occasionally function as attributes: e.g. The house ablaze is next door to mine. In this function they are normally modified: e.g. the half-asleep children; a somewhat afraid soldier; a very ashamed girl. Common statives are: ablaze, afloat, afraid, aghast, astir, alike, alive, alone, aloof, ashamed, asleep, adrift, awake, aware.
3.11 Substantivized adjectives
Some items can be both adjectives and nouns:
The relationship between such adjectives and the corresponding nouns is that of conversion. When the adjective is converted into a noun, it becomes substantivized. Substantivized adjectives lose all or part of the characteristics of the adjective and take all or part of the characteristics of the noun. There are two kinds of substantivized adjectives: fully (wholly) substantivized and partially substantivized adjectives. Fullу substantivized adjectives acquire some or all paradigmatic characteristics of the noun: they inflect for the plural and the genitive, and take definite and indefinite articles or no articles in case they have abstract reference. They are words denoting: (1) classes of people: an aboriginal, a progressive a white, etc; (2) nationalities: a Greek, a Czech, an American etc; (3) periodicals: a daily, a weekly, a monthly, etc; (4) shades of colour: a red, a blue, a blond, etc; (5) abstract qualities, material or colour when the latter has abstract reference: good, bitter, yellow, etc. 1) She had never seen a native who was better for breaking with his tribal laws and beliefs; It was so cold that the blacks went shivering in their thin clothes. 2) He had his arm on the American’s shoulder. 3) He peered at old copies of financial periodicals. 4) His eyes were a very light grey. 5) It’ll do you good; A pint of bitter, please; Green does not match blue. To the group of fully substantivized belong some participles II whose singular and plural forms are homonymous. “I appear for the accused “... the deceased’s finger-prints ought to be on it somewhere”; Margaret and her husband looked - as if they had been the accused.” Partially substantivized adjectives have only some characteristics of the noun: they are determined by the definite article. They are plural in meaning and take a plural verb. To this subdivision belong adjectives denoting groups of people (the rich, the blind, the dead, etc) and nationality words ending in [S] (the British, the Spanish, the Irish, etc) and [tS] (the French, the Dutch, the Scotch, etc). They wanted him to rise from the dead; The English have been called ‘a nation of shopkeepers’. Notes: [a] Partially substantivized adjectives of the first type are sometimes used not to refer to a nation or group of people as a whole but to some part of it: The Irish (who live) in America retain sentimental links with Ireland; The British have control of the bridge. If we want to denote a single person belonging to the group it is necessary to add a noun: e.g. an Irishman, or use a noun derivative: e.g. a Britisher. [b] In the vast majority of cases if the reference is made to a particular group of people the adjective is supplied with a noun. Cf.: The young are usually intolerant (a general statement); The young men were fishing (particular people).
PART FOUR FINITE VERB PHRASE
4.1 There are two kinds of verb phrases: finite and non-finite. Finite verb phrases are distinguished by containing a finite verb as their first (or only) component. The finite verb is the member of the phrase which shows person, number, tense, mood, aspect, and voice. Non-finite verbs have no person, number, primary tense (present, past and future), and mood distinctions. Nevertheless, they are capable of indicating aspect, voice, and secondary tenses (perfect and non-perfect). Compare: Finite VP
is/was/will be studying |
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older, oldest (used with reference to age)
later, latest (used with reference to time)
nearer, nearest (used with reference to distance)
farther, farthest (used with reference to distance)
studies/studied/will study