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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
He has studied/had studied/ English ⇐ ПредыдущаяСтр 10 из 10
will have studied
Non-finite VP
Studying English is useful. To study English Finite verbs occur as the predicate of sentences. There is usually person and number agreement between the subject and the finite verb. Compared with other European languages, English has very few person and number inflections. With all English verbs except be, agreement is confined to a contrast between the 3rd person singular and all other forms of the present tense.
Verb phrases can be subdivided into two major types: those having a verbal adjunct and those having a non-verbal adjunct. To the firstgroup belong the following phrases: Vi to V: seem to believe (it) Vt to V: begin to understand Vt p Ving : insist on going (there) Vi Ving: sit smiling Verb phrases with a non-verbal adjunct can comprise two or three members. Accordingly, double (1) and triple (2) phrases are distinguished.
4.2 Characteristics of the verb The verb is a notional part of speech which denotes an action (run, write) or a state conceived as process (dream, worry). The verb has person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood distinctions. There are two kinds of verb forms: finite and non-finite. The finite forms have person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood distinctions. The nоn-finite forms of the verb are the infinitive (to write), the present participle (writing), the past participle (written), and the gerund (writing). Finite verbs occur as the predicate of the sentence: e.g. Henry has my address. There is usually person and number agreement between the subject and the finite verb, which is particularly clear with the verb be: I am/you are/he is against it. Modal verbs count as finite verbs, although they do not inflect for number and person in the present tense: I/you/he must do it. Non-finite forms cannot be used as predicates. They can be only part of a predicate*: e.g. One way out of it was never to use the instrument; I wanted to meet you; He dreads losing you. 4.3 Classifications of verbs
I. Morphological classification Many English verbs have four principal forms: the stem (coinciding with the present indefinite except the 3rd person singular), the past tense, the present participle, and the past participle. Regular verbs have the same -ed inflection added to the stem for both the past tense and past participle. The majority of English verbs belong to this regular class. All new verbs that are coined or borrowed from other languages adopt this pattern: e.g. publicize (=make publicity), publicized, publicized; gazump (=cheat), gazumped, gazumped. Irregular verbs are those whose past tense and past participle cannot be formed according to a rule. There are in English 250 irregular verbs which can be subdivided into consonantal, vocalic and unchangeable. Consonantal verbs have a -tinflection (dwell - dwelt - dwelt). Some of them have also variation in their base vowel (think - thought - thought, feel - felt - felt). Along with irregular forms such verbs as burn, learn, dwell have regular forms: burned, learned, dwelled. Vocalicverbs have variation in the root vowel (sing-sang-sung; win-won-won). Vowel or consonant change may be accompanied by affixation: speak - spoke - spoken; sell - sold - sold. Unchangeable verbs have the past tense and past participle the same as the stem: put - put - put; let - let - let. Among irregular verbs there are two suppletive verbs whose forms are “supplied” from different stems: be has eight different forms (be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been) and go has went for the past tense and gone for the past participle. Modal verbs (or modals) are called “defective” in that some of their forms are missing.
4.4 Semantic classification Semantically, verbs can be grouped into dynamic and static verbs. Dynamic (action) verbs refer to activity and can therefore be used in the continuous form. They include walk, run, read, write, work, play, look, listen, etc. Static verbs refer to states and do not normally occur in the continuous form. They include be, have (in the sense of “hold” or “possess”), contain, consist, know, believe, prefer, suppose, see, hear, etc. The majority of English verbs are dynamic and even those which are static are often given a dynamic use in present-day English: I was seeing and hearing it done; I’ve been meaning to have a word with you.
4.5 Lexico-grammatical classification
According to their function in the phrase, which is closely connected with their meaning, all verbs are divided into notional, auxiliary and semi-auxiliary. Notional verbs have a full lexical meaning of their own and can be used in a sentence as simple verbal predicate or notional part of a compound verbal predicate (say, sleep, cry, etc): She told me all about herself; Perhaps we could do something to make it easy. Auxiliary verbs have no lexical meaning of their own. They are used as part of analytical forms (perfect, continuous, future forms, etc). They have a pure structural function in the verb phrase. Here belong such verbs as be, do, shall, will, have. It would be lovely; You didn’t come here for all this. Semi-auxiliary verbs can be considered under two headings: link verbs and modal verbs.* Tolinks belong such verbs as be, become, remain, turn, etc, which denote a state and function as the first part of a compound nominal predicate. She felt sorry for the baby; The milk turned sour. Polysemantic verbs may function as notional verbs as well as auxiliary and semi-auxiliary: I got your telegram (notional); She got accepted by the Royal College (auxiliary); It got cool toward evening (semi-auxiliary: link). 4.6 Syntactical classification
Syntactically, verbs can be divided into subjective and objective. A subjective verb denotes an action associated only with its subject. Here belong such verbs as stand, sleep, laugh, think, rise, etc: She sat down again opposite David; That happens. An objective verb denotes an action associated not only with its subject but also with an object. Objective verbs can be transitive, i.e. they take a direct object: He wants her to marry him. Verbs which do not take a direct object are called intransitive. Here belong all subjective verbs and those objective verbs whose object is not direct. The latter may be illustrated by the examples below: We’ve been talking about you; She looked for a place to hang the picture. Many verbs can be used both as subjective and as objective verbs. Compare: John is going to marry Jane (objective); Harry didn’t marry until he was fifty (subjective). Note: Verbs may form combinations with postpositions (e.g. take off, get up, find out). These are called phrasal verbs. Some phrasal verbs retain the individual meanings of the verb and the postposition (e.g. sit down), whereas for other phrasal verbs the meaning of the combination cannot be built up from the meanings of the components (e.g. give in = surrender, turn up = appear).
4.7 Person and number In the verb system of modern English there are two numbers - singular and plural, and three persons - first, second, and third. With most verbs, there is no contrast between number and person forms except between the 3rd person singular present and all other persons: I/you/they sing:: He (she, it) sings. Person distinctions may be preserved in the future tense:
4.8 Tense Tense is a grammatical category of the verb indicating the time of an action. The main divisions of time - present, past and future, are represented in English by the primary tenses: simple present, simple past and simple future. They are also called absolute tenses. Besides the primary tenses there are the so-called secondary tenses in English: perfect forms. They do not merely indicate that the action refers to the present, past, or future, but show that the action is related to some other action (or point of time) in the present, past, or future. Therefore the perfect forms are relative tenses. Primary tenses
4.9 Simple present The simple present tense of every verb except be has two forms. One, which is homonymous with the stem, is used for all persons except the 3rd person singular. Whenever the verb is 3rd person singular, the -s inflection* is added to the stem.
Apart from the verb be which has three forms (am, is, are), there are only three exceptions to this rule: the 3rd person singular of have is has [hxz]; the 3rd person singular of say and do is regular in spelling (says, does), but irregular in pronunciation [sez], [dAz]. The present tense relates events or describes conditions in the present. It has several uses: (i) It is used to express an actual present time action: He works hard; I admire her; The paper sells well. (ii) It is used to express a characteristic, repeated, or habitual action: She visits us regularly; They (often) meet at the club. (iii) It is used to express a universal truth: The news travels fast; Two and two makes four. The simple present can also be used with future time reference: (i) It is occasionally used when there is a future time indicator in the sentence and the action is seen as absolutely certain. It is often the case with verbs of motion, arrival, or departure: We leave tomorrow morning; The performance begins at eight. The use of the simple present to express scheduled or confidently expected actions is typical of formal style. (ii) It is used in clauses of time, condition and concession introduced by if, unless, when, whatever, etc: If you ask him, he will help you; I’ll wait till he comes; Whatever happens, they will send me a word. (iii) It is used in object clauses after the verbs see, take care, make sure and the like: See that she goes to the clinic regularly and be sure she gets enough to eat. (iv) It is used in some special questions: What do we do next?; Where do we go, now?; When do we start? Note: The simple present can occasionally be used with past time reference: [a] with the “communication” verbs “tell, hear, learn, write, etc” to express the persistence in the present of the effect of a past communication: e.g. Mike tells ( =has told) me that you've been to Paris; Much admired, I hear ( =heard); [b] in vivid narrative, when it is termed the “historic present”: e.g.... last week we went into Rennes to do some shopping. A couple of French boys picked us up in a cafe. Students. They were all right. So they chat us up. Di says we’re staying on our vacation with a friend of her family’s. Then they want to drive out one day and see us. (J. Fowles); [c] in stage directions, when it is termed the “dramatic present”: e.g. The men slowly come to attention, except Charles, who, after a pause, moves to his bed and sits on it. One by one the other boys, except Pip, also sit on their beds in defiance.
4. 10 Simple past Most verbs in English are regular and form their past tense by the addition of an ending that is spelled -ed or just -d if the stem is spelled with a final -e. This spelling represents three different sounds, depending on the final sound in the stem. If the stem ends in [t] or [d], the ending is [Id]: hate -hated ['heitId]; load - loaded ['loudId]. If the stem ends in a voiced consonant (other than [d]) or a vowel, the ending is [d]: love - loved ['lAvd]; call - called [kLld]; bow - bowed [baud]. If the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than [t]) the ending is [t]: ask - asked [Rskt]; kiss - kissed [kist]; wash -washed [wOSt]. In writing the following spelling rules should be observed: verbs ending in -e take the letter d for the past: chase - chased, tremble - trembled; (2) when the stem ends in a consonant followed by y, the y changes to i before -ed is added: cry - cried, terrify - terrified; (3) a final i is always doubled: quarrel - quarrelled, control - controlled; (4) a final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by a short stressed vowel or if a verb ends in a stressed -er/-ur: nod - nodded, stop -stopped, prefer - preferred, occur - occurred. But if the preceding vowel is long or unstressed, the final consonant remains single: limit - limited, develop - developed, transform - transformed, offer - offered. The past tense of irregular verbs cannot be formed according to a rule but must be learnt*. The past tense relates events or describes conditions in the past, i.e. no longer present for the speaker. It has several uses: (i) It is used to express a single occurrence (event). The idea of “no longer present” is often marked by indicators of past time (yesterday, last summer, a few years ago): They saw it only once; I visited him yesterday. (ii) It is used to express habitual or repeated occurrences. It is found with the time indicators regularly, always, and the like. She visited them regularly; We met several times each week. (iii) The past tense can be called a narrative tense since it is widely used in narration (i.e. in fiction, news items, historical documents, etc), especially to express a succession of past actions. He turned and looked at her then; Jazz crooned distantly, stopped, struck up again. Note: [a] Distinct from the simple present the simple past does not imply habitual activity without a suitable adverb; “used to” or (less commonly) “would” may be needed to bring out this sense: e.g. John used to smoke much; While she ironed or washed the kitchen floor, he would read aloud to her. [b] The past tense is commonly used instead of the present in very polite conversational formulas. It relates to the attitudes of the speaker rather than time: e.g. Did you want to see me now?
4.11 Simple future
The simple future tense has two analytical forms: shall + infinitive, will + infinitive. The auxiliary shallwas used with a first person subject (singular and plural), whereas will normally occurred with the second and third person subjects. In present-day English will (or its contracted form ‘ll) can be used in all persons. But it can be replaced, optionally, by shall with a first person subject.
The future tense relates events or describes conditions in the future*, i.e. at the time following the moment of speech: We’ll go there as soon as possible and search the place; You will come with Gwen next week, won’t you? Note: There are several other ways of expressing future in English. The most important future constructions are: be about + ‘to’-infinitive (e.g. I feel something terrible is about to happen); be on the point/verge of (e.g. He is on the point of death). “Be about + ‘to’- infinitive” signifies an arrangement for the future (especially an official arrangement), while the other constructions emphasise the nearness of a future event.
4.12 Future-in-the-past A future as seen from the past can be expressed by would + infinitive, or optional should + infinitive with a first person subject, in indirect speech (1), or in the continuous context of a narrative (2): No, Signorina Annabella, he didn’t say he would be coming soon. He said he would be here, only that. He said we should all come at seven. It was nearly nine o’clock. She would have to change and feed the baby at ten.
4.13 Secondary tenses Secondary tenses are actually perfect forms. They consist of the auxiliary verb have in its predicative form and the past participle of the notional verb
He, she, it has (had, will have) arrived. The basic meaning of the perfect is current relevance, i.e. it mentions a past or future event only because the importance of that event is felt in the present or at some past or future moment:
You had taken your chance (and there was no other).
The doll has been broken. The child is crying bitterly. The doll had been broken. The child was crying bitterly. The doll will have been broken. The child will be crying bitterly. There are a number of other meanings that go with the perfect forms, such as precedence (priority), accomplishment (completion), and some other meanings. Note: Perfect forms of verbs of motion are sometimes found with the auxiliary ‘be’ which is a survival of old English: e.g. The blossoming time of their hope was come; But will you think of it after I am gone? (= after I die). In informal English ‘be gone’ is used to explain a situation (especially when someone or something disappeared) rather than describe what has happened. ‘Gone’ in this usage functions almost adjectively: e.g. My purse is gone. Someone has taken it; When I turned round you were gone.
4.14 Present perfect The present perfect mentions a past event whose importance or effects are still continuing to be felt or will be felt in the future. I have taken an aspirin. I’m better now; He’s sleeping late, he’s been up all night; You know, I’ll hate what I’ve done sometimes. Since the present perfect includes the moment of speech or a period leading up to the present time, the following time indicators can be used with it: today, this week, lately, already, always, ever, never, yet, so far, and the like. The postman has already been. (The postman has been already.) I’ve always been on the old side. (= I’ve always felt old.) Up to now we have been lucky. The present perfect can name a future action completed before a definite moment in the future in temporal and conditional clauses. I don’t feel I can ring him up at home until I’ve met his mother; The idea will slip through you if you haven’t made a study of the first and second sections of the book. Note: [a] There is some tendency, especially in American English, to use the past simple informally instead of the present perfect to refer to the recent indefinite past: e.g. I saw it already (= I have already seen it); Did you eat yet? (= Have you eaten yet? ). [b] The present is used with verbs of communication and the verbs ‘understand’ and ‘forget’, where more strictly the present perfect would be appropriate:
But compare: I’veforgotten to ring her up (a certain action).
4.15 Present perfect or simple past Either the present perfect or simple past could occur with the time indicators today, this morning, this week and the like.
I him today/this morning. saw The present perfect is acceptable if the time indicators include the moment of speech. But if the day has passed or it is morning no longer the simple past is used. We often find sentences, with no time indicator, in which the use of the present perfect or simple past depends on whether the event refers to a period begun in the past and stretching up to the present or to a period now past. ‘Have you had a good time? ’ would be a reasonable question to ask at the end of the party, while ‘Did you have a good time? ’ would be the right question to ask the day after. We normally use the past tense after since: e.g. You’ve changed since I saw you last. The past tense shows when the change started, or in what period it has taken place. The perfect form is acceptable but not as common as the past tense after since. It is used to emphasise the parallel nature of the action; e.g. My hair has got whiter since I have been here. A simple present or present perfect tense can occur in sentences containing ever. The difference in meaning can be illustrated by the following examples: Do you ever ride a motor bike? (i.e. Are you in the habit of riding it? ) Have you ever ridden a motor bike? (i.e. Did it ever happen in your life? ) The simple past is used in the following cases, where more strictly the present perfect would seem to be appropriate:
4.16 Past perfect
Its meaning is quite similar to that of the present perfect, except that the point of interest is some moment in the past, rather than ‘now’. The past perfect names the events whose effects or results were still important at some past moment. He had already drafted the introduction, he knew what he was going to say. Like the simple past, the past perfect is a narrative tense. It marks a step back in the narration, relating past events that occurred before other events in the past. Darkness had fallen... when, half an hour later, the engine panted into Blaenelly. The past perfect can be used in temporal and conditional clauses to express completion of a future action viewed from the past. ... the next morning Uncle Gavin came for me before I had finished breakfast; But Моr decided that it was better to wait a little while until the situation had become clearer... The idea of “before past” is often marked by the following time indicators: already, always, ever, never, before, once, up to then, etc, and also by such indicators of exact time as a year ago, an hour before, last night, then, etc.
4.17 Past perfect or past indefinite
After left they the room, he smiled at me. When had left When describing one event following another in the past, we can show their relation by using the past perfect for the earlier event, or else we can use the past tense for both, and rely on the conjunctions (after, when) to show which event took place earlier. A past or past perfect can occur in sentences containing ever. In case of a past tense the action is confined within a certain period of time. Did you ever meet Jake at university? When used with the past perfect ever means ‘at any time up to now’. She asked me if I had ever been in trouble with the people.
4.18 Future perfect It is an extremely rare tense. The future perfect relates future events that will occur before other events in the future. Tomorrow Jean and Ken will have been married twenty years. You’ll sleep, and when you wake these fancies will have gone. The future perfect is sometimes associated with the modal meaning of ‘prediction’, i.e. ‘it is (highly) probable’. The guests will have arrived by now; You will all have heard the news last night (i.e. I assume you heard it).
4.19 Aspect The category of aspect is made up of the common and continuous(progressive) aspects. It concerns the manner in which the action is experienced or regarded: as a mere occurrence (fact) or activity in progress. Common aspect She sings beautifully (a fact) Continuous aspect She is singing beautifully (activity in progress)
4.20 Continuous aspect The continuous forms consist of the auxiliary verb be in its predicative form and the present participle of the notional verb.
We, you, they are (were, will be) moving. He, she, it is (was, will be) The continuous aspect indicates temporariness, i.e. limited duration of the action. ‘Is she sleeping? ’ Kate whispered; You were sleeping when I left; He’ll be closing in ten minutes. Since the continuous forms express an activity going on at a definite moment or period of time they can be used with adverbs and adverbial phrases indicating that moment or period of time:
There are a number of other meanings or overtones that go with the present, past and future continuous, such as incompletion, vividness of description, emotional colouring and emphasis, etc. Compare:
As pointed out in 1.4, the continuous occurs only with dynamic verbs (or more accurately, with verbs in dynamic use). Dynamic verbs include (a) activity verbs: ask, call, drink, listen, read, say, work, etc; (b) process verbs: change, grow, etc; (c) verbs of bodily sensation: ache, feel, hurt, etc; (d) momentary verbs: hit, jump, nod, etc and others. (a) I’m learning more; (b) The weather is changing for the worse; (c) My back is hurting; (d) When I looked at him he was nodding. The verbs which are called static verbs do not normally admit of the continuous (*He was knowing the answer). Static verbs include (a) verbs of sensory perception and judgement: believe, consider, expect, fear, hate, know, like, prefer, etc; (b) relation verbs: be, belong, contain, deserve, have, matter, mean, own, resemble, require, etc; and others. Although static verbs may be labelled as ‘non-progressive’, there are special circumstances in which you hear them used in the continuous. In many circumstances, one may say that the static verb has been changed into a dynamic verb (or it has been given a dynamic use) as it refers to an active form of behaviour. I was seeing and hearing it done; I wasn’t being an objective, doctor; What can I get you? - Whatever you’re having. In the same way, think, imagine, remember, and the like can sometimes be used as ‘mental activity’ verbs. I’m thinking about what you said. If a static verb has several meanings it can be made dynamic by some of them, thus it may take the continuous. Compare:
I am considering buying one of his pictures (i.e. I am in the process of making a decision).
I was seeing her off (= I was going with her to the railway station). Notes: [a] Another exceptional case is the use of the continuous with ‘hope, want’, etc to express greater tentativeness and tact: e.g. Were you wanting to see me?; We are hoping you will support us. [b] The present and past continuous sometimes signify a fixed arrangement for the future: e.g. The plane is taking off at 5.20; I was meeting him the next day. [c] The future continuous is freely used with the modal meaning of prediction, i.e. for imagining what people are doing right now: e.g. My parents will probably be getting up about now and making breakfast (i.e. I assume...).
4.21 Perfect forms of the continuous aspect Perfect forms of the continuous aspect are analytical forms which are made with present, past and future perfect forms of the auxiliary verb be and a present participle of the notional verb.
4.22 Present perfect continuous The present perfect continuous is used with dynamic verbs, when the speaker is emphasising the idea of activity in progress in the present period (i.e. which started in the past and has continued up to the present). It has been raining, but it has stopped now. With some verbs the present perfect continuous may suggest an action continuing into the present. I’ve been waiting for an hour. The present perfect continuous with verbs which do not generally take the continuous describes an action as if it were in progress and imparts an emotionally coloured tone. What has been happening?; I’ve been meaning to say something to you about that, but I haven’t known now.
4.23 Present perfect or present perfect continuous
The present perfect continuous suggests not only that the activity is temporary (i.e. of limited duration), but that it need not be complete. Compare:
I have mended the car this morning (the job is finished).
I have learnt all the regular verbs since we last met (and now I know them all). The present perfect continuous is used especially for more temporary actions and situations; when one talks about more permanent situations, the present perfect is preferred. Compare:
My parents have lived in Bristol all their lives.
He hasn’t worked for years.
rained It every day this week. been raining
I’ve lived in France for two years (and I’m still there). I’ve been living in France for two years (It says what one has been doing during this period).
Note: English speakers themselves do not always discriminate clearly between the two verb forms in the last contrastive pair of sentences. The most common way of talking about it is “I’ve been living in France for two years” since the speaker looks at his living in this country as something continuous. Notice that “I’m living in France for two years” is only acceptable if it is intended to mean “I am going to live in France for that period”. 4.24 Past perfect continuous The past perfect continuous is used with action verbs, when the idea of activity in progress in the past period is conveyed. I had been working too hard and found I needed a rest. The past perfect continuous usually lacks emotional colouring though verbs which do not generally take the continuous acquire in the past perfect continuous some emphasis. She knew he had been hoping for it ardently.
4.25 Future perfect continuous The future perfect continuous hardly ever occurs in English owing to the fact that it is seldom required by the situation. When used in speech it acquires some shade of modality equal in its meaning to ‘may + infinitive’ and expresses not a future but a past time process. That’s how she’ll have been passing her time this morning (The conversation took place at dinner time). “Are you drunk, woman? ” he roared at her. - “She’ll have been taking a little bit at the bottle to keep her strength up, ” tittered Grandma Brodie maliciously. 4.26 Sequence of tenses In a continuous text, it is usually considered desirable to retain the same tense, present or past, for each step in the narrative, description or argument. This involves one or the other of two combinations: Present Indefinite, Present Continuous, Present Perfect and one of the Future Tenses, as in We live in Maple Street. They are building a swimming pool near our house. We have been here for ten years and will probably stay here for the rest of our lives. Past Indefinite, Past Continuous, Past Perfect and Future-in-the-Past: We lived in Maple Street. They were building houses all around us then. We had been there for ten years and imagined we would stay there for the rest of our lives. However, any combination of tenses is possible if each tense is used appropriately to express the speaker's exact meaning. Thus: I don’t know what to think, Gloria. Your last letter, cold, without a word of affection or even a decent account of what you’ve been doing, came two weeks ago. To report what someone has stated, one can either use quotation marks (direct speech) or a subordinate clause which can be called a reported clause (indirect speech). To introduce direct and indirect speech a reporting verb is used which is usually a verb of saying. “I should be with you by seven, ” she said. “Sure you won’t mind the empty house? I hate arriving at empty houses, myself.” I said no, I liked an empty house. In narrative, the reporting verb is usually in the past tense. In this case, certain changes are normally made in converting from direct speech. The change of tense of the verb follows the rules of the sequence of tenses. The sequence of tenses is the principle in accordance with which the tense in a subordinate clause 'follows' or is adjusted to that of the main clause; thus, in general, when the main clause has a simple present, present perfect, or future, the subordinate clause has a present tense (primary sequence); when the main clause has a simple past or past perfect, the subordinate clause has a past (primary sequence).
Occasionally, however, the tense is not adjusted. Note: The rules of tense sequence are observed in clauses of second, third, etc. grade of subordination. Yet the choice of the tense is determined here by the tense of the clause to which it is subordinated: e.g. Awkwardly, with kindness, he asked me about my studies. He said that Ann had told him how I was working.
4.27 Exceptions There are three exceptions to the rules of tense sequence. Past perfect verbs in direct speech are not changed in indirect speech:
Modal verbs which have only one form must, need, ought, should do not normally change. But must can also be reported as had to:
When the idea expressed in the reported statement can also be applied to situations which still exist in the present, there is no need to change the tense:
However, past tenses are also possible in these cases and the following conversation would sound quite natural. ‘How old are you? ’ – ‘I beg your pardon? ’ – ‘I asked how old you were.’ ‘Where’s Anthony? ’ – ‘The Japanese servant told me he was at some inn. Having dinner, I suppose.’ In sentences like these, English speakers often use present tenses if they feel that they are reporting facts; past tenses are preferred if the speaker is not sure of the truth of what he reports. Compare: She told me she’s getting married next June. (And I believed her.) She told me she was getting married next June. (It may be true, it may not.) Note: [a] ‘Indirect’ (reported) speech as is used here includes unspoken mental activity when the reporting verbs ‘think, believe, feel’, etc. are used: e.g. But she had thought she had closed the door; Jennie had realized that she had won. [b] Frequently, there is a change from ‘this/these’ to ‘that/those’, from ‘here’ to ‘there’, from ‘now’ to ‘then’, and etc., but there are no exact rules for changing these words: one uses whatever expressions will make the meaning clear in the situation. [c] Notice that only ‘I thought you were a gentleman’ (And now I see you are not.) is acceptable if it is intended to mean that the thinking was untruthful.
4.28 Voice
Voice is a grammatical category which shows in what relation the subject is placed to the action expressed by the predicate verb. There are two voice forms in English: active and passive forms (sees:: is seen). The passive voice form is analytical. It comprises the auxiliary verb be followed by participle II of the notional verb.
The active voice form indicates that the subject of the sentence denotes the doer of the action expressed by the predicate: We have already discussed it. The passive voice form shows that the subject of the sentence is affected by the action expressed by the predicate verb. The doer of the action, if mentioned, is expressed by a noun (or pronoun) preceded by the preposition by. It has already been discussed (by us). The possibility of using a given verb in the passive voice correlates with the division of verbs into subjective and objective. Subjective verbs do not require an object and are associated only with the subject: come, go, fall, etc. Objective verbs require one or two objects: see, laugh (at), give, etc. The majority of objective verbs can be used in the passive voice form. There are the following main correspondences between the subject of the passive construction and the object of the active construction. The subject of the passive construction corresponds to the non-prepositional object of the active construction. The object mentioned is sole object in the given construction. Many people have been arrested for giving out leaflets. Cf.: They have arrested many people. The subject of the passive construction corresponds to one of the two non-prepositional objects of the active construction. There are two main variants: a) the subject corresponds to the direct object of the active construction: The house was shown to me. Cf.: They showed me the house; A pair of sandals was bought for Johny (by mother). Cf.: Mother bought Johny a pair of sandals. As seen from the examples above, the indirect object of the active construction often becomes prepositional in the passive construction (mainly with toand for). There are a number of verbs in English which take two direct objects. Here belong such verbs as ask, answer, envy, forgive. As a rule it is the object denoting a person that functions as subject in constructions with these verbs. I was asked a question. Cf.: He asked me a question; He was answered nothing. Cf.: They answered him nothing. The verb forgive admits of two variants: You will not be forgiven your rudeness; Your rudeness will not be forgiven. Cf.: They will not forgive you your rudeness. b) the subject corresponds to the indirect object of the active construction: He was awarded the prize. Cf.: They awarded him the prize. He was given a book. Cf.: They gave him a book. The subject of the passive construction corresponds to the prepositional object of the active construction. This correspondence is common when the active construction contains only one object: He needed to feel that he was listened to. Cf.: He needed to feel that they listened to him. If, however, the prepositional object is preceded by a non-prepositional object it is the latter which usually functions as subject in the passive construction: The problem was explained to me. Cf.: He explained the problem to me. In a number of set expressions containing a non-prepositional object and a prepositional object either of the objects may become the subject of the passive construction: He was not taken notice of; No notice was taken of him. Cf.: They took no notice of him; Great care was taken of his books; His books were taken great care of. Cf.: They took great care of his books. The subject of the passive construction corresponds to the complex object of the active construction. Accordingly the subject of the passive construction is also complex. Its first part precedes the predicate whereas the second part follows it: He was heard to mention it. Cf.: They heard him mention it; He was seen walking across the field. Cf.: They saw him walking across the field. In the four types of correspondences between the subject of the passive construction and the object of the active described above the object was not expressed by a clause. If the predicate verb of the active construction takes a subordinate clause as object the subject of the passive construction is expressed by the so-called anticipatory it: It was agreed that each member would invite a guest. Cf.: They agreed that each member would invite a guest. It should be mentioned that a number of objective verbs do not have a passive. Here belong resemble, suit, possess and the like. They do not have a passive because they do not express actions affecting objects. In a number of cases a verb can be used in the passive form in one meaning but cannot be used in the passive form in another meaning. For instance, holdand have cannot be used in the passive when they mean “contain” and “possess” respectively: The house held six flats; He has an interesting book. Yet the same verbs can be used in the passive when they denote actions: The meeting was held at ten o'clock; Dinner can be had at any reasonable time.
4.29 Choice of the passive The passive is generally used in the following instances: When the doer of the action is unknown or cannot be easily stated: The city is well supplied with water. When one takes a greater interest in the thing done than in the doer of the action: The deputation then made its way to Downing Street where a petition carrying 40, 000 signatures was handed in. When the doer of the action is not mentioned for some special reason (tact or delicacy of feeling): You have been told so many times not to touch these things. The mentioning of the 1st person is avoided in scientific writing: This book of reading is compiled to meet the needs of students taking a course in English grammar. Note: In informal style, ‘get’ is often combined with participle II to make a vivid expression with passive meaning that emphasises the action involved: e.g. Be careful so that you won’t get hurt. In a few cases, mostly with personal pronouns, the indirect object may occur after a passive voice form without a preposition: e.g. That lesson was taught him when he was quite young. 4.30 Mood Mood is a grammatical category of the verb which expresses modality, i.e. relation of the action denoted by the predicate to reality from the speaker’s point of view. Finite verbs have three moods: the indicative, the imperative and the subjunctive. Non-finite verbs have no mood distinctions.
4.31 The indicative mood Verbs in the indicative mood are inflected for three primary tenses (present, past, future), three secondary tenses (present perfect, past perfect, future perfect), two aspects (common and continuous) and two voices (active and passive). The indicative mood has a factual meaning. It represents an action as a fact or an event which is in close relation with reality. The sun rises in the east (a fact); I shall not go to the country, if it rains (a real condition). The indicative mood forms do not necessarily express actions which are true to fact or actually take place in reality. In some cases the issue of truth is only assumed by the speaker. “I’ve seen to it, ” he said, but everyone knew it was not true.
4.32 The imperative mood The imperative mood has practically one form, the stem of the verb, without endings for tense or number. Stop; Read on; Look it up in a dictionary. The auxiliary do not (don’t)is used to form the negative. Don’t be late, please. In the imperative there is no tense distinction, and only very rarely the continuous or ‘get’ + participle II forms occur. Be preparing the dinner when he comes in; Get washed. The imperative mood represents an action as a command or request. It is a direct expression of the speaker’s will. The pronoun you is understood but not normally used. To specify the people who have to obey the command a second or third person subject can be put in front of the verb in the imperative (note that youis stressed in this case): You take this tray, and you take that one; Jack and Susan, stand over there; Somebody open the door. Elsewhere, a command with youhas a tone of impatience. You mind your own business; You be quiet. Another form of impatient command begins with will: e.g. Will you be quiet! Although this has the grammatical form of a question, its falling intonation gives it the force of a command. Note: Commands sound abrupt unless toned down by markers of politeness such as ‘please’: e.g. Please eat up your dinner; Shut the door, please. Even this only achieves a minimum degree of tentativeness; a more tactful form of request can only be arrived at if one changes the command into a question or a statement: e.g. Will you shut the door, please?; I wonder if you would kindly shut the door; I wonder whether you would mind shutting the door. The tags ‘why don’t you’ and ‘will you’ (after a negative command) can tone down a command: e.g. Come in, why don’t you?; Don’t be late, will you (? ). But after a positive command, ‘will you’ has rising intonation, and usually expresses impatience: e.g. Sit down, will you (? ).
4.33 The subjunctive mood What we understand by the subjunctive mood includes two entirely different kinds of forms, synthetical and analytical, united by the same grammatical meaning of irreality. The synthetical forms of the subjunctive mood are partly survivals of the old simple subjunctive. They are called subjunctive I (e.g. We demand he come on time) and subjunctive II (e.g. I wish he came on time). The new analytical forms with the auxiliaries should and would have replaced the former simple subjunctive. They are known as the suppositionalmood (e.g. I demand he should come on time) and the conditional mood (e.g. If he knew he would come in time). Unlike the indicative which is a fact mood (e.g. I’m glad that John has agreed - a fact), the subjunctive may be called a thought mood (e.g. I wish John had agreed - a thought). The subjunctive presents an action as a non-fact, as something imaginary or desirable. It does not reflect an actual reality but shows events formed in the mind of the speaker as supposition, desire, volition, etc.: I would do it, if could (The fact is that the speaker cannot do it); If he were here! (But he is not here).
4.34 Subjunctive I Subjunctive I has only one form which coincides with the stem of the verb; this means there is no regular indicative agreement between the subject and predicate verb in the third person singular present, and the present and past are indistinguishable.
The negative is formed by putting not before the stem. The auxiliary do is never used. The teacher recommends that the student not miss any classes. Subjunctive I presents an action as problematic and desirable, but not contrary to fact. Subjunctive I is normally used in ‘that’-clauses when the main clause contains an expression of recommendation, resolution, demand, and so on (e.g. we suggest/ require/ order, etc.; it is urgent/ important, advisable/ strange/ doubtful, etc.; the order/ request/ plan, etc. is). The committee arranged that the visit be extended (object clause); It is requested that no one smoke in the hall (subject clause); The rule is that the students have at least one workbook between two (predicative clause); No one will accept your suggestion that we work |
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Studying English, he learnt a lot about the British.
I, we have (had, will/shall have) arrived.
You have taken your chance (and there is no other).
You will have taken your chance (and there will be no other).
have seen
In some contexts the past perfect and the simple past are interchangeable: 
I am (was, shall/will be)
I go there often.
I’m going there often.
She always came late.
She was always coming late.
When will you come?
When will you be coming?
I consider this his best work (A judgement).
I saw him at the railway station (i.e. I perceived him there by the eye).
I have been mending the car this morning (but the job may not be finished).
I have been learning German since we last met and made some progress in it.
I’ve been living in Sally’s flat for the last month.
I haven’t been working very well recently.
Either form would be acceptable when we talk about actions that have been repeated in a period up to the present.
There may be only a slight difference in meaning between the following utterances: 
must
will write
had written
had been writing
will have written
will have been writing
would write
would be writing
