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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
ORGANS OF SPEECH AND THEIR FUNCTIONСтр 1 из 6Следующая ⇒
PHONETICS Lesson 1. Part I. ORGANS OF SPEECH AND THEIR FUNCTION I. Organs of speech. 1) the larynx 2) the vocal cords 3) the nasal cavity 4) the mouth cavity 5) the lips (upper/lower) 6) the teeth (upper/lower) 7) the alveolar ridge 8) the hard palate 9) the soft palate with the uvula 10) the tongue - the tip of the tongue - the front of the tongue - the middle of the tongue - the back of the tongue 11) the pharynx 12) the epiglottis
II. How sounds are produced. The air passes from the lungs through the larynx into the pharynx and into the mouth cavity. If the soft palate is lowered, the air passes through the nasal cavity. The vocal cords are in the larynx. They can be brought together, and when the air stream goes between them, they vibrate and produce voice. When the vocal cords are wide apart the air stream passes between them freely, they do not vibrate and no voice is produced. The space between the vocal cords is called the glottis (голосовая щель).
III. Active and passive speech organs. The organs of speech are devided into active and passive. The active speech organs take an active part in the articulation of sounds. They are: the lips the tongue the soft palate with the uvula the vocal cords The passive speech organs serve as points of articulation. They form obstructions with the active speech organs. They are: the teeth the alveolar ridge the hard palate
Part II. CONSONANTS AND VOWELS Speech sounds are devided into vowels and consonants. A vowel is a voiced sound produced in the mouth with no obstruction to the air stream. A consonant is a sound produced with an obstruction to the air stream.
CONSONANTS I. Obstruction. There are 2 types of obstruction: complete and incomplete. A complete obstruction is formed when two organs of speech come in contact with each other and the passage of the air is blocked. An incomplete obstruction is formed when two speech organs are held very close but the passage of the air is not blocked.
II. Consonants are classified according to the following principles: 1. according to the active speech organ; 2. according to the place of obstruction; 3. according to the type of obstruction; 4. according to the manner of the production of noise; 5. according to the work of the vocal cords; 6. according to the position of the soft palate.
1. According to the active speech organ consonants may be: 1) labial 2) lingual 3) glottal 2. According to the place of obstruction . 1) labial consonants may be: bilabial labio-dental 2) lingual consonants may be: forelingual mediolingual backlingual Forelingual consonants are devided into a) apical which may be dental alveolar palato-alveolar b) cacuminal which are post-alveolar Mediolingual consonants are palatal. Backlingual consonants are velar. 3. According to the type of obstruction consonants may be: 1) occlusive 2) constrictive 4. According to the manner of the production of noise 1) occlusive consonants are devided into a) noise which may be plosive / affricates b) sonorants 2) constrictive consonants are devided into a) noise b) sonorants which may be median / lateral. 5. According to the work of the vocal cords consonants may be: voiced voiceless. 6. According to the position of the soft palate consonants may be: oral (the soft palate is raised and the air escapes through the mouth) nasal (the soft palate is lowered to close the mouth passage and the air escapes through the nasal cavity).
VOWELS I. The English vowels are devided into 2 large groups: monophthongs diphthongs. Monophthong is a pure vowel sound. The organs of speech do not change their position throughout the duration of the vowel. Diphthong is a complex sound consisting of two vowel elements. The organs of speech start in the position of one vowel and glide in the direction of another vowel. There are 2 vowels - [ i ] and [ H] which are called diphthongized vowels, because in the articulation of these vowels the organs of speech change their position, but very slightly.
II. The English vowels may be classified according to the following principles: 1. according to the position of the tongue; 2. according to the position of the lips; 3. according to the length of the vowel; 4. according to the degree of tenseness.
1. The tongue may move in a horizontal and vertical directions. According to the horizontal position of the tongue vowels may be: a) front (when the bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth) [ J ] [ e ] [ x ] / / [ F ] b) front-retracted (when the bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth but somewhat retracted) [ I ] / [ a ] c) central (when the central part of the tongue is raised) [ A ] [ E: ] [ q ] / [ o ] d) back-advanced (when the bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth but somewhat advanced) [ R ] [ V ] e) back (when the bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth). [ P ] [ L ] [ H ] / [ O ] According to the vertical position of the tongue vowels may be: a) close (when one of the parts of the tongue comes close to the roof of the mouth) [ J ] [ I ] [ H ] [ V ] b) midopen (when the raised part of the tongue is half-way between its high and low positions) [ e ] [ E: ] [ q ] [ L ] / [ F ] [ o ] c) open (when the raised part of the tongue is very low in the mouth) [ x ] [ R ] [ P ] [ A ] / [ a ] [ O ] Each of these 3 positions (close, midopen, open) has two variations: narrow and broad. For example [ E: ] and [ q ]: the central part of the tongue is raised a little higher in the production of [ E: ] than in the production of [ q ], so [ E: ] is central, midopen narrow, and [ q ] is central, midopen broad.
2. According to the position of the tongue vowels may be: rounded [ P ] [ L ] [ V ] [ H ] / [ o ] [ O ] unrounded. 3. According to the length of the vowel vowels may be: long short, 4. Accroding to the degree of tenseness vowels may be: tense (all long vowels). lax.
III. Diphthongs. The first element of the diphthong is called the nucleus; it is strong, clear and distinct. The second element is called the glide; it is weak and indistinct. There are 8 diphthongs in English: [ eI ] [ aI ] [ OI ] [ Iq ] [ Fq ] [ Vq ] [ aV ] [ oV ] The diphthongs are devided into the diphthongs of the front row ([ Iq ] [ Fq ] [ eI ] [ aI ] [ aV ]) and the diphthongs of the back row ([ Vq ] [ oV ] [ OI ]).
Part III. PHONEME Phoneme is he smallest unit of language, existing as such a speech-sound which can distinguish one word from another or one grammatical form of a word from another form of the same word. (Наименьшая далее неделимая звуковая единица языка. Абстрактное понятие о звуке, которое объединяет различные его признаки в одно целое). For example, the English words bead [bJd] и bid [bid] are distinguished one from another by the vowel sounds [J] and [I]. The 2 grammatical forms of the noun man: the singular for man [mxn] and the plural form men [men] are distinguished by the vowel sounds [x] and [e]. Therefore, these vowel sounds represent different phonemes. It is clear that the correct pronunciation of sounds is important for the understanding of words. If you pronounce the vowel [e] instead of [x],the hearer may confuse such words as bed and bad, pen and pan, men and man. What we pronounce is always a variant of a phoneme or its allophone. Different allophones of one and the same phoneme are speech-sounds which have one or two articulatory features in common and at the same time differ from each other in some degree because of the influence of their position, neighbouring speech-sounds and other phonetic factors. The allophones cannot distinguish words or the grammatical forms of a word. For example, in the words 1) eight [ eit ] and 2) eighth [ eitT ] the consonants [t] are similar, but at the same time they are different: the [t] in 1) is pronounced with the tip of the tongue pressed against the alveolar ridge and is an alveolar consonant. [t] in 2) is pronounced with the front of the tongue pressed against the upper teeth and is a dental consonant. But if you pronounced the word eight with a dental [t] and eighth with an alveolar [t], each of these words would still be recognized and understood.
II. There are 26 letters and 44 phonemes, 6 vowel letters and 20 vowel phonemes in the English language. One and the same letter in different positions can denote different sounds and vice versa one and the same sound can be produced by different letters (letter combinations).
Part IV. ASSIMILATION. I. In speech sounds may undergo considerable changes under the influence of the neighbouring sounds. So, phonemes exist in the form of allophones. Their articulation differ from the articulation of separate phonemes.
II. There are 3 stages in the articulation of a separate phoneme: 1) the initial stage (экскурсия) - the organs of speech move away from a neutral position to the position necessary for the pronunciation of the sound; 2) the medial stage (выдержка) - the organs of speech are kept for some time in the same position; 3) the final stage (рекурсия) - the organs of speech move to a neutral position. These stages may be represented graphically: P2
P1 P3 If we pronounce sounds one after another separately with all the 3 stages of articulation, the sounds do not form a word. P2 A:2 T2
P1 P3 A:1 A3 T1 T3 It will make a word only if all the 3 sounds are joined together in the proper way. The stages of the articulation are merged.
III. Partial or complete change of the articulation of sounds in speech under the influence of the neighbouring sounds is called assimilation. 1. Assimilation may affect all the features of the articulation of a consonant or only some of them. Kinds of assimilation: a) assimilation affecting the place of obstruction b) assimilation affecting the work of the lips c) assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords.
a) This assimilation takes place when the alveolar variants of the phonemes [t], [d], [n], [l], [s], [z] are replaced by their dental variants if they are followed by the dental consonant phonemes [T], [D]. tenth [tenT], wealth [welT], read this ['ri:d 'DIs] b) This assimilation takes place when labial variants of the phonemes [k], [g], [t], [s]... are used under the influence of the following bilabial sonorant consonat [w] quick [kwIk], twenty ['twentI] language [lxngwIG], swim [swIm]. c) This assimilation takes place in the following cases: 1) What is this? [wPt Iz DIs]. In rapid speech the vowel [I] in the verb is omitted. What's this? [wPts DIs]. The voiced sound [z] is replaced by the voiceless sound [s] under the influence of the preceding voiceless consonant [t]. 2) goose [gu:s] and goosebery ['gu:zbqri]. The voiceless [s] was replaced by the voiced [z] under the influence of the following voiced [b]. 3) In the words small [smLl], please [plJz], slow [sloV], try [traI], pew [pju:], quick [kwik], twenty [twenti]... the sonorants [m], [n], [l], [r], [j], [w] are partly devoiced under the influence of the preceding voiceless consonants [s], [p], [t], [k].
2. According to the direction assimilation may be of 3 types: progressive, regressive, double. 1) progressive [prq'gresiv] ->: What's this [wPts DIs] [z] -> [s] under the influence of the preceding sound; 2) regressive [rI'gresIv] <-: tenth [tenT]; 3) double ['dAbl] <->: twenty ['twentI] a) the sonorant [w] is partly devoiced under the influence of the preceding voiceless consonant [t]. Assimilation affects the work of the vocal cords; b) the labialized variant of the phoneme [t] is used under the influence of the following bilabial consonant [w]. Assimilation affects the work of the lips.
Eg. Explain the case of assimilation: in them ['InDqm] 1) assimilation affects the place of obstruction; 2) the alveolar variant of the phoneme [n] is replaced by its dental variant under the influence of the following dental phoneme [D]; 3) assimilation is regressive.
Part V. INTONATION. I. The sentence is the basic unit of language. In speaking and reading aloud many sentences may be divided into 2 or more sense-groups. A sense-group is a word or a group of words. It forms the shortest possible unit in a sentence from the point of view of meaning, grammatical structure and intonation. From the intonational point of view, this unit is called the intonation group. It is easy,іisn't it? On the tableіthere is a lamp. An intonation group may be a whole sentence or part of it. It may consist of one word or a number of words. Aliceі, 'go to the blackboard.
II. Intonation is a unity of speech melody (речевая мелодика), phrasal stress (фразовое ударение), rhythm (ритм), voice quality (тембр), tempo of speech (темп).
III. Intonation can be shown graphically, using: 1) staves (upper / lower limits of the pitch range of the voice in speech); 2) dash (a stressed syllable); 3) dot (an unstressed syllable); 4) downward curve (a stressed syllable pronounced with a fall in pitch within that syllable); 5) upward curve (a stressed syllable pronounced with a rise in pitch).
IV. An intonation group may have: 1) pre-head (начальные безударные слоги, на более низком кровне, чем 1-й ударный); 2) head (1-й ударный, самый высокий по тону); 3) scale (серия / цепочка ударных / безударных слогов); 4) nucleus (последний ударный слог); 5) tail (безударные слоги после ядерного).
V. The scales used in English are: 1) The Descending Spepping Scale ______________ 'How do you' pronounce this word? ______________ 1a) The Upbroken Descending Scale ______________ 'Jane is і so beautiful. ______________ 2) The Ascending Stepping Scale ______________ ______________ 'Was it ,my book? ______________ ______________ 3) The Broken Scale . ______________ Her sister was very un'kind to her.______________
VI. The terminal tone is the most important element. There are several types of terminal tone: 1) The Low Fall ______________ 2) The High Fall ______________ 3) The Rise-Fall ______________ 4) The Low-Rise ______________ 5) The High-Rise ______________ 6) The Fall-Rise ______________ 7) The Level Tone ______________
He is a 'very 'clever schoolboy. _______________________________
_______________________________
Part VI. PHRASAL STRESS. "Фразовое ударение - артикуляционно-слуховое выделение одних слов в речи по сравнению с другими словами. 1. Words which are usually stressed in English unemphatic speech include: Notional parts of speech. 1) nouns 2) adjectives 3) numerals 4) notional verbs 5) adverbs 6) demonstrative pronouns 7) interrogative pronouns 8) emphatic pronouns (усилительные местоимения) 9) the absolute form of the possessive pronouns 10) postpositions (послелоги)
2. Words which are NOT stressed.
1) personal 2) possessive pronouns 3) reflexive (возвратные) 4)relative Form-words. 5) auxiliary verbs 6) modal verbs 7) prepositions 8) conjunctions 9) articles
Part VII. PHYTHM ['r ID m]. Rhythm in speech is the recurrence of stressed syllables in a sense-group at certain intervals of time. Stressed syllables tend to follow each other as nearly as possible at equal intervals of time. The unstressed syllables occupy the time between the stressed ones. The greater is the number of unstressed syllables the quicker they are pronounced. Eg. 'Andrew 'went 'back to London. 'Andrew has 'gone 'back to London. 'Andrew should have 'gone 'back to London. These sentences contain the same number of stressed, but a different number of unstressed syllables. But they are pronounced in the same period of time, although in the 1st sentence there is 1 unstressed syllable between the 1st and 2nd stressed syllables, while in the last there are 3 unstressed syllables between them. A stressed syllable pronounced together with the unstressed ones forms a rhythmic group. A sense-group may consist of one or more rhythmic groups. If there are several rhythmic groups in a sense-group, each of them takes approximately the same time to pronounce. Thus, in each of the above 3 sentences there are 4 rhythmic groups and, each of them should be pronounced in the same period of time. In English speech unstressed syllables tend to join the preceding stressed syllable. But the unstressed syllables at the beginning of a sentence join the following syllable. 'John is 'playing with his 'friends in the yard. He is 'playing tennis. Lesson 2. THE PHONEMES [p], [b]. The lips are pressed together. A comlete obstruction is formed, so the air-passage is blocked for a short time. Then the lips are quickly opened and the air escapes with plosion. In the articulation of [b] the vocal cords vibrate and this sound is voiced; the sound [p] is voiceless. [b] is a labial bilabial occlusive noise plosive voiced consonant phoneme.
[p] is a labial bilabial occlusive noise plosive voiceless consonant phoneme. The sound [p] in a stressed syllable is pronounced with aspiration before a vowel.
ASPIRATION. Aspiration is a slight puff of breath that is heard after the plosion of a voiceless plosive consonant before the beginning of the following vowel. There are 3 degrees of aspiration: 1) strongest: before long stressed vowels and diphthongs; park [ pRrk ] pie [ paI ] 2) weaker: before short vowels (unstressed vowels); pick [ pIk ] (coffeepot [ 'kPfIpPt ]) 3) no aspiration: after the sound [s] and before other consonants. space [ speIs ] place [ pleIs ]
PALATALIZATION. It takes place when the middle of the tounge is raised towards the hard palate in addition to the main articulation. There are 2 palatal consonants [ S ] and [ Z ]. All the other consonants are not palatalized, because: 1) the English forelingual consonants are apical, this position does not allow the middle of the tongue rise too high; 2) the English front vowels [ I ] and [ J ] are not so close as the Russian vowel [u], and it doesn't let the middle of the toungue rise too high; 3) the English consonants join the following vowel in the final stage of its articulation. In Russian it happens in the medial stage.
THE PHONEMES [k], [g]. The back of the tongue is pressed against the soft palate. The air-passage is blocked for a short-time. Then the air escapes with plosion. In the articulation of [g] the vocal cords are close and vibrate, so [g] is voiced, [k] is voiceless. [g] is a lingual backlingual velar occlusive noise plosive voiced consonant phoneme; [k] is a lingual backlingual velar occlusive noise voiceless consonant phoneme.
THE PHONEME [ I ]. The vowel [ I ] is pronounced with the bulk of the tongue in the front of the mouth cavity, but sightly retracted. The front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate. The lips are neutral. It is short and lax. [ I ] is a front-retracted, close, broad unrounded short and lax vowel phoneme.
THE PHONEMES [f], [v]. The lower lip is raised to the edge of the upper teeth with a flat narrowing between them. The air passes through it with friction. The vocal cords are close and vibrate in the articulation of [v], it is voiced; [f] is voiceless. [v] is a labial labio-dental constrictive noise voiced consonant phoneme; [f] is a labial labio-dental constrictive noise voiceless consonant phoneme.
THE PHONEMES [s], [z]. The tip and the front of the tongue are held close to the alveolar ridge. The sides of the front of the tongue are raised. And a round narrowing is formed through which the air passes. The sound [z] is voiced, because the vocal cords are close and vibrate. [z] is a lingual forelingual apical alveolar constrictive noise voiced consonant phoneme; [s] is a lingual forelingual apical alveolar constrictive noise voiceless consonant phoneme.
THE PHONEME [i:]. The bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth, the front of the tongue is raised high towards the hard palate. The lips are spread and neutral. During the pronunciation of this vowel the tongue may slightly change its position from a more open and retracted position to a more close and more advanced. That is why the sound is diphthongized. The tenseness increases towards the end. [i:] a front close narrow diphthongized unrounded long tense vowel phoneme.
Mistakes: 1) [i:] is replaced by the Russian[u] - keep the front of the tongue a little lower than for the Russian [u]; - make the English [i:] longer and more tense (but not too long before voiceless consonants); - give the colouring of [ы] to the beginning of the vowel and give the shade of [u] to the end of the sound. 2) [i:] is replaced by [ I ] - lengthen the vowel. The Russian vowel that resembles the English [i:] most of all is [u] in the word ива. Compare: Ива - [i:v] eve
Lesson 3. THE PHONEMES [t], [d]. The tip of the tongue is pressed against the alveolar ridge, so that the air-passage is blocked for a short time. Than the tip is removed from the alveolar ridge and the air escapes with plosion. The vocal cords are close and vibrate in the articulation of [d] so it's voiced; [t] is voiceless and is pronounced with aspiration. [d] is a lingual forelingual apical alveolar occlusive noise plosive voiced consonant phoneme; [t] is a lingual forelingual apical alveolar occlusive noise plosive voiceless consonant phoneme.
THE PHONEME [m]. The lips are pressed together, forming a complete obstruction to the air. The soft palate is lowered and the air passes out through the nasal cavity. The vocal cords are close and vibrate. [m] is a labial, bilabial, occlusive sonorant (nasal) consonant phoneme.
THE PHONEME [n] The tip of tongue touches the alveolar ridge, forming a complete obstruction to the air. The soft palate is lowered, the air passes out through the nasal cavity. The vocal cords are close and vibrate. [n] is a lingual forelingual apical alveolar occlusive sonorant (nasal) consonant phoneme.
THE PHONEME [e]. The bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity. The front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate, but not so high as for the vowel [i]. The lips are spread. It is short and lax. [e] is a front midopen narrow unrounded short lax vowel phoneme.
WORD-STRESS. Each word consisting of 2 or more syllables has word-stress. An English word may have 2 or even 3 stresses. One of them is called primary (or main) and the other one is called secondary stress. Some words may have 2 main stresss like the numerals from 13 to 19. fifteen [ 'fIf 'tJn ]
SYLLABLE FORMATION. Syllable is one or more speech-sounds forming a single uninterrupted unit of utterace which may be a whole word (man [mxn])or part of it (morning [ 'mLniN). An English syllable may consist of: 1) a vowel (monophthong, diphthong); are [a:] I [ aI ] 2) a vowel and one or more consonants; early ['E:lI ] my [ maI ] man [mxn] 3) noise consonant + і [m] at the end of the word і [n] і [l]
apple ['xpl] rhythm ['riDm] people ['pi:pl]
Compare: 2 syllables 1 syllable doesn't don't ['dAznt] [do V nt] sadden sand ['s x dn] [s x nd] There are 2 types of syllables: 1) open: ends in a vowel sound he [hi:] writer ['rai-t q] they [D ei] 2) closed: ends in a consonant sound it [I t] hundred ['hAn -dr q d] main [m eI n]
SYLLABLE DIVISION. 1) The English long monophthongs, diphthongs and the unstressed short vowels [ I ], [ q ], [ V ] are always met in an open syllable when they are separated from a following vowel or sonorant [m, n, l] by only one consonant; Eg. meeting [ 'mJtIN ] army [ 'RmI ] gardn ['ga:dn] ordinarily [ 'LdInqrIlI ] 2) A short stressed vowel in the same position, always occurs in a closed syllable, the syllable boundary is within the consonant. city ['sItI ] sorry ['s P r I ] petty ['pet I ] money ['mAnI ]
THE SOUNDS [tn], [dn]. In this combination meet 2 alveolar consonants (the place of obstruction is the same) with different manners of the production of noise (plosive/nasal). When the tip of the tongue is pressed against the alveolar ridge, a complete obstruction is formed. The stream of air is stopped. Then while the tip is still pressed against the alveolar ridge, the soft palate is lowered for the 2nd stage of the articulation of the sound [n]. The stream of air escapes through the nasal cavity with nasal plosion. Then begins the final stage of the sound [n]. So, the sounds [t], [d] lose their final stage, and the sound [n] loses its initial stage of the articulation. written ['rItn] birden ['b E :dn]
THE PHONEME [w]. The lips form a round narrowing, the back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate. The sides of the tongue are raised, the air passes through the round narrowing between the lips. The vocal cords are close and vibrate. The sound [w] is very short and weak and is met only before a vowel. [w] is a labial bilabial constrictive sonorant median consonant phoneme.
Lesson 4. THE PHONEMES [ T ], [ D ]. The tip of the tongue is against the edge of the upper teeth, forming a flat narrowing. The main part of the tongue is flat and relaxed. The air passes through the narrowing with friction. [ D ] is a lingual forelingual apical dental constrictive noise voiced consonant phoneme; [ T ] is a lingual forelingual apical dental constrictive noise voiceless consonant phoneme.
THE PHONEME [ eI ]. The bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity. During the pronunciation of the nucleus the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate, as for [e]. So the nucleus is front, midopen, narrow, unrounded. Then the front of the tongue glides still higher, in the direction of [ I ], but without reaching it. The lips are slightly spread. [ eI ] is a diphthong of the front row. [e] is a nucleus. It is a front midopen narrow unrounded vowel phoneme. [ I ] is a glide.
THE PHONEME [ q ]. The central part of the tongue is raised a little. The lips are neutral. [ q ] is a central midopen broad unrounded short lax vowel phoneme. The phoneme [q ] is met ony in unstressed syllables. It has 3 variants depending on its position in a word. 1) at the end of the word: runner [ 'rAnq ] = рана [ъ] 2) - at the beginning of the word and between consonants (not [k],[g]); about [q'baVt] interval ['Intqvq l] - in the articles + a word beginning with a consonant: a pen [q 'pen] the day [ Dq'deI] this variant of [q] is shorter and weaker; 3) near the phonemes [k], [g]; again [q'geIn] to convey [tqkqn'veI] this variant is more close and back.
THE PHONEMES [ C ], [ G ]. The tip and the front of the tongue touch the alveolar ridge, so the air-passage is blocked for a short time. Then the front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate, the tip of the tongue leaves the alveolar ridge, and forms a flat narrowing through which the air passes with friction. [G ] is a lingual forelingual apical palato-alveolar occlusive noise affricate voiced consonant phoneme; [C] is a lingual forelingual apical palato-alveolar occlusive noise affricate voiceless consonant phoneme.
THE LOW-FALL TONE. We know 7 terminal tones either falling or rising. In this lesson we deal with the Low-Fall Tone _______ . It is used in narrative sentences, emotionally neutral. It is categoric in character. It expresses finality. Lesson 5. THE PHONEME [ x ]. The bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity. The tongue is rather low in the mouth. The middle of the tongue is slightly raised but not high. The lips are neutral. [ x ] is a front open broad unrounded short lax vowel phoneme.
THE PHONEME [ aI ]. During the pronunciation of the nucleus the front of the tongue is slightly raised, but lower than for [ x ]. During the glide the front of the tongue moves higher, in the direction of [ I ], but doesn't reach it. The glide resembles a weak [e]. [aI] is a diphthong of the front row. [a] is a nucleus. It is a front-retracted open broad unrounded vowel phoneme. [ I ] is a glide.
REGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION. Alveolar variants of the phonemes [t], [d], [n] change the place of obstruction and become dental under the influence of the following dental [ T ], [ D ]. at this [qt ' DIs] and that [qn(d) 'DIs].
THE LOW-FALL. We've mentioned that this tone is categoric in character. It is used in imperative sentanses (повелительное наклонение), expressing orders and directions.______________ Take it. ______________ ['teIk It]
REDUCTION. The words which are usually not stressed in a sentence:
possessive pronouns reflexive relative
modal prepositions conjunctions articles They have strong forms when they are stressed. They have weak (or reduced) forms in unstressed positions. There are 3 degrees of the reduction of strong forms. 1) quantitative; he [hi:] -> [h i ] [hi] ([h I]) the length of the vowel is reduced; 2) qualitative; [ DI ] the [Di:] [Dq ] a [eI ] -> [q] but [bA t] -> [bq t] he [hi:] -> [hI] Most vowels are reduced to the neutral vowel [ q ], the long vowels [i:] and [u:] are usually reduced to [ I ] and [V]. 3) zero (the omission of a vowel). I've got a book. [ aIv 'gPt q "bVk ] It's easy. [ Its "JzI ]
Lesson 6. THE PHONEME [l]. The tip of the tongue is pressed against the alveolar ridge. The sides of the tongue are lowered. The air passes along the sides of the tongue. The sound is sonorant. The consonant [l] has 2 variants in English: 1) the clear [l] - before vowels and [j]: lesson ['lesn] value ['vxlju:] the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate: it is slightly palatalized;
child [CaIld] bell [bel] the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate. [l] is a lingual forelingual apical alveolar constrictive sonorant lateral consonant phoneme.
THE PHONEME [r]. The tip of the tongue is raised towards the alveolar ridge. The sides of the tongue are raised and the air passes along the median line of the tongue. The sound is sonorant: the vocal cords vibrate. [r] is a lingual forelingual cacuminal post-alveolar constrictive sonorant median consonant phoneme.
THE PHONEME [ R ]. The bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth cavity but a little advanced. The back of the tongue is slightly raised. The lips are neutral. [R] is a back-advanced open broad unrounded long tense vowel phoneme.
THE LINKING [r]. If the word, ending in the letter r or letter combination re is followed by a word, beginning with a vowel, the linking sound [r] appears between them. -r [r] + vowel -re - The bags are on the desks.
THE SOUND COMBINATIONS [z - D ] AND [s - T ] IN SPEECH. In the following words: sixth [sIksT ] Who's that? ['hu:z Dxt] the alveolar phonemes [s] and [z] are followed by the dental phonemes [ T ] and [ D ]. But the phonemes [s] and [z] are not assimilated. So, care should be taken not to let the sound [q] appear between them.
THE LOW-RISE TONE. It expresses non-finality (незавершенность), doubtness, uncertainty. It is non-categoric. It shows that the sentence or the sense group is logically dependent on the following sense-group. In the sentences with this tone the stressed and unstressed syllables form a Descending Stepping Scale. If the sense-group ends in one stressed syllable the raise of the tone occurs within this syllable. If the last stressed syllable is followed by unstressed syllables (tail), the last stressed syllable is pronounced rather low, the raise of the tone is formed by the unstressed syllables. Is this a desk? ___________________ 'iz Dis q"desk || ___________________
Is he in the cinema? ___________________ 'Iz hI In Dq"sInImq || ___________________
Are they in the garden? ___________________ 'R Dei In De ga:dn || ___________________ Lesson 7. THE PHONEME [ A ]. The central part of the tongue is raised towards the juncture of the hard and soft palate, a little higher than for [R]. The lips are spread. It sounds very much like the Russian [A] in какой [кAкой]. The bulk of the tongue takes up a more advanced position as compared with its position in pronouncing [R] [A] is a central open narrow unrounded short and lax vowel phoneme.
THE PHONEME [j]. The front of the tongue is against the hard palate. The sides of the tongue are raised. The air-passage is open along the median line of the tongue. The air-passage between the front of the tongue and the hard palate is wide, the air flows through it freely. The sound is short and weak. The tongue immediately glides to the position of the following vowel. The vocal cords are close and vibrate. [j] is a lingual mediolingual palatal constrictive sonorant median consonant phoneme.
THE PHONEMES [ S ], [ Z ]. The tip of the tongue is raised to the alveolar ridge forming a flat narrowing. At the same time the middle of the tongue is raised to the hard palate which palatalizes the consonants. The lips are rounded and slightly protruded. [S] is a lingual forelingual apical palato-alveolar constrictive noise voiced consonant phoneme; [Z] is a lingual forelingual apical palato-alveolar constrictive noise voiceless consonant phoneme.
LOGICAL STRESS. What are the most important components of Intonation? They are speech-melody and phrasal (or sentence)-stress, because thanks to them the meaning of a sentence can be expressed. What words are usually stressed in English unemphatic sheech? They are: 1) nouns; 2) adjectives; 3) numerals; 4) notional verbs; 5) adverbs; 6) demonstrative pronouns; 7) interr. pronouns; 8) emphatic pronouns; 9) the absolute form of the possessive pronouns 10)postpositive pronouns. What words are usually unstressed? They are:
2) possessive pronouns 6) modal і 3) reflexive 7) articles 4) relative 8) prepositions 9) conjunctions But, it is necessary to point out that any word in a sentence may have logical stress, if this word is the most important piece of information or the communicative centre of the sentence. A word which is marked by logical stress may stand at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sense-group. It is usually the last stressed word in it. The words, following logical stress are either unstressed or half-stressed. Where have you been? (Да где же вы были?) Where have you been? (Да где же вы были?) He is a student. (Он действительно студент). Logical stress often expresses something new to the listner, contrast or some other kind of special importance which the speaker attaches (придает) to the word.
Lesson 8. THE PHONEME [ P ] The tongue is held in a position which is farther back than for [R]. The back of the tongue is raised a little higher than for [R]. The lips are slightly rounded.
[P] is a back open broad rounded short lax vowel phoneme. Don't replace the English [P] by the Russian [o]. To prevent this mistake the tongue must be held as low down in the mouth and as far back as possible, while the lips must be slightly rounded and slightly protruded.
THE PHONEME [ L ] The bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth cavity. The back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate, higher than for [P]. The lips are rounded and slightly protruded.
[L] is a back midopen broad rounded long and tense vowel phoneme. The Russian [o] is closer than the English [L] and more rounded. The lips must be rounded closer than for [P].
THE PHONEME [ oV ] During the pronunciation of the nucleus the central part of the tongue is in the [E:] position. The nucleus is central midopen narrow unrouded. During the glide the back of the tongue rises higher, in the direction of [V]. The glide is rather distinct in stressed syllables (and sounds like the vowel [V].) The lips are neutral at the beginning of the diphthong but during the glide, at the end of the diphthong, they are almost as rounded, as for [V].
[oV] is a diphthong of the back row. [o] is a nucleus. It is a central, midopen, narrow, unrounded vowel phoneme. [V] is a glide.
THE PHONEME [ N] The back of the tongue is raised and touches the soft palate, forming a complete obstruction. The soft palate is lowered and the air passes out through the nasal cavity. The vocal cords are near and vibrate. [N] is a lingual, backlingual, velar occlusive, sonorant (nasal) consonant phoneme. This consonant can only occur at the end of a word or syllable: sing [sIN] English [ 'IN - glIS ]
THE COMBINATION OF A CONSONANT + [ w ] 1. In the words twelve, quick [twelv], [kwIk], assimilation offects the work of the lips (1): the labialized variants of the phonemes [t] [k] are used under the influence of the following bilabial consonant [w]. Assimilation also affects the work of the vocal cords (2) the sonorant [w] is partly devoiced under the influence of the preceding voiceless consonants [t] [k]. Assimilation is double. 2. In the word dwell [dwel] assimilation affects the work of the lips: the labialized variant of the phoneme [d] is used under the influence of the following bilabial consonant [w].
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES In unemphatic speech special questions and exclamatory sentences are pronounced with the Low - Fall Tone. What's the time? 'wPts Dq "taIm || _______________________________ _______________________________
THE HIGH-FALL TONE The High - Fall Tone is as categoric as the Low - Fall and expresses finality. It indicates liveliness (живость), polite and friendly interest,personal involvement (личная заинтересованность). It is used in emotionally coloured narrative sentences, special questions and exclamations. The speaker uses this tone because some word is especially important for him and he wants to draw the listner's attention to this word. The Fall occurs in the stressed syllable of the word. The Fall begins on a higher level than in unemphatic speech and ends on a low level. The other words in the sentences are pronounced either with full strees or they are half - or unstressed. It's warm today, isn't it. Its "wLm tq.deIl"Iznt It | |
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It's very warm today Its 'verI . wLm tq.deI _______________________________
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Lesson 9. THE PHONEME [ V ] The bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth cavity, but slightly advanced. The back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate. The lips are slightly rounded. [V] is a back - advanced, close broad, rounded, short lax vowel phoneme. The Russian [у] is more back and the lips are more rounded and protruded than for [V].
COMPOUND NOUNS As a rule, compound nouns have one stress, i.e. on the first element: blackboard ['blxkbLd] But, if the second element consists of 2 or more syllables it often has a secondary stress: mother - country ['mADq "kAntrI] book - keeper ['bVk "Jpq] THE PHONEME [ H ] The bulk of the tongue is retracted more than for [V]. The back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate higher than for [V]. The sound is long and tense. During the pronunciation of [H] the tongue moves grom a more advanced and open position to a closer and more retracted position - the vowel is diphthongised. The tenseness increases towards the end. The lips towards the end are more rounded. [H] is a back close narrow diphthongized rounded long tense vowel phoneme.
THE PHONEME [ aV ] The nucleus is ponounced with the bulk of the tongue in the front part of the mouth, but slightly retracted. The front of the tongue is slightly raised. The nucleus is front-retracted open broad unrounded. During the glide the tongue moves higher and backwards, as for [V], but doesn't reach its position. As a result, the glide often sounds like a weak [o]. Don't protrude the lips. [aV] is a diphthong of the front row. [a] is a nucleus. It is a front-retracted, open, broad unrounded vowel phoneme. [V] is a glide.
THE PHONEME [ h ] It is articulated with a strong air stream passing through the open glottis. The bulk of the tongue and the lips are held in the positions necessary for the articulation of a following vowel. [h] is a glottal constructive noise voiceless consonant phoneme. This sound is found only before vowels.
Lesson 10. THE PHONEME [ Iq ] During the pronunciation of the nucleus the bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity. The front of the tongue is raised to the position of the vowel [I]. During the glide the tongue moves back and down towards [q]. [Iq] is a diphthong of the front row. [I] is a nucleus. It is a front-retracted, close, broad, unrounded vowel phoneme. [q] is a glide. Don't replace the diphthong [Iq] by the monophthongs [I] or [J] especially before the sonorant [r].
THE PHONEME [ E: ] The central part of the tongue rises almost as high as for [e]. The tongue lies flat. The tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth. [E:] is a central midopen narrow unrounded long and tense vowel phoneme. There must be: 1) no lip-rounding in pronouncing the English [E:]. 2) no arching of the tongue: - the tip of the tongue touches the base of the lower teeth - the opening between the jaws must be narrow - the lips must be spread.
THE COMBINATION OF A CONSONANT + [ r ] 1. In the following words
dress [dres] die [daI] Henry ['henrI] hen [hen] already [Ll'redI] all [Ll] the alveolar variants of the phonemes [t] [d] [n] [l] are replaced by their post-alveolar variants under the influence of the following post-alveolar consonant [r]. 2. In the following words price [praIs] compare rice [raIs] try [traI] dry [draI] cream [krJm] green [grJn] friend [frend] rend [rend] threat [Tret] read [red] The sonorant [r] is partly devoiced under the influence of the preceding voiceless consonants [p] [t] [k], [f] [T]
A SENTENCE OR SENSE-GROUP If a preposition stands at the end of a sentence or sense-group it is used in its strong form. The dog ran after him Dq 'dpg "rxn Rftq I"fL ||
If a preposition is followed by a personal pronoun, the pronoun is used in its reduced (weak) form. Give it to her "'gIv It tH hq
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THE FALL-RISE TONE It is an imphatic tone. (It is contrastive (противопоставляющий), implicatory. It expresses politeness, apology, concern, uncertainty. Perfectly pE:fIktlI || _______________________________ _______________________________
Lesson 11. THE PHONEME [ Fq ] During the pronunciation of the nucleus the bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth. The front of the tongue is mid-way between the positions for [e] and [x]. The nucleus is more open than the vowel [e]. The lips are spread and neutral. During the glide the tongue moves to the position of [q]. The glide may sound like [A] at the end of a word. [Fq] is a diphthong of the front row. [F] is a nucleus. It is a front, midopen, broad unrounded vowel phoneme. [q] is a glide
THE COMPOUND TONE FALL-RISE The falling of the tone occurs within one of the initial words and the rising within one of the final words of a sense-group. The words between them are pronounced at a low level. They are half-or unstressed. The falling marks out the word which is especially important for a speaker. Don't close the window 'doVnt .kloVz Dq "wIndoV || _______________________________ _______________________________
Lesson 12. THE PHONEME [ OI ] During the pronunciation of the nucleus the bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth, as for the vowel [P]. The lips are slightly rounded. For the glide the tongue moves forward and upward, in the direction of [I], but doesn't reach it. The glide sounds like a weak [e]. [OI] is a diphthong of the back row. [O] is a nucleus. It is a back, close narrow, rounded vowel phoneme. [I] is a glide.
THE PHONEME [ Vq ] During the pronunciation of the nucleus the bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth, but slightly advanced. The back of the tongue is raised. During the glide the tongue moves down to the position of the vowel [q]. [Vq] is a diphthong of the back row. [V] is a nucleus. It is a back-advanced, close broad rounded vowel phoneme. [q] is a glide.
THE HIGH-RISE TONE The voice starts at a medium level and rises to a high one. It is used in all sorts of echoes and in questions calling for repetition (переспрос).
Lesson 14. THE RISE-FALL TONE The voice starts at a rather low level and rises to a high level and then quickly falls to a very low level. __________________ No __________________ Perfectly __________________
It is categoric in character. it expresses both pleasant and unpleasant attitudes, from irony to sarcasm, from being pleasantly impressed to admiration. A Rise-Fall also exists in Russian as in a kind of mocking or envious remarks. ^Really = ^Ишь ты
ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS They are devided into 2 sense-groups: The first sense-group is pronounced with the Low-Rise Tone, the 2nd one - with the Low-Fall Tone.
Is her sister a doctor or a nurse? 'Iz hE 'sIstqr q"dpktq | Or q "nE:s ||
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Are the bags on the table or under the table? 'R Dq 'bxgz "Pn Dq teIbl | O r "Andq Dq .teIbl ||
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Is the chair in front of the desk or behind the desk? 'Iz Dq 'CfqrIn "frAnt qv Dq desk | O bI"haInd Dq.desk ||
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Are those your friends or their friends? 'R DoVz "jL frendz | O "DFq .frendz ||
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Are these books hers or ours? 'R DJz 'bVks "hE:z | O r "aVqz ||
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THE LEVEL TONE It is non-final and non-chategoric in character. It may express hesitation and uncertainty. It is often used in reciting poems.
Well, I'm not sure. -> wel | aIm 'nPt "SVq
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_________________________________ PHONETICS Lesson 1. Part I. ORGANS OF SPEECH AND THEIR FUNCTION I. Organs of speech. 1) the larynx 2) the vocal cords 3) the nasal cavity 4) the mouth cavity 5) the lips (upper/lower) 6) the teeth (upper/lower) 7) the alveolar ridge 8) the hard palate 9) the soft palate with the uvula 10) the tongue - the tip of the tongue - the front of the tongue - the middle of the tongue - the back of the tongue 11) the pharynx 12) the epiglottis
II. How sounds are produced. The air passes from the lungs through the larynx into the pharynx and into the mouth cavity. If the soft palate is lowered, the air passes through the nasal cavity. The vocal cords are in the larynx. They can be brought together, and when the air stream goes between them, they vibrate and produce voice. When the vocal cords are wide apart the air stream passes between them freely, they do not vibrate and no voice is produced. The space between the vocal cords is called the glottis (голосовая щель).
III. Active and passive speech organs. The organs of speech are devided into active and passive. The active speech organs take an active part in the articulation of sounds. They are: the lips the tongue the soft palate with the uvula the vocal cords The passive speech organs serve as points of articulation. They form obstructions with the active speech organs. They are: the teeth the alveolar ridge the hard palate
Part II. CONSONANTS AND VOWELS Speech sounds are devided into vowels and consonants. A vowel is a voiced sound produced in the mouth with no obstruction to the air stream. A consonant is a sound produced with an obstruction to the air stream.
CONSONANTS I. Obstruction. There are 2 types of obstruction: complete and incomplete. A complete obstruction is formed when two organs of speech come in contact with each other and the passage of the air is blocked. An incomplete obstruction is formed when two speech organs are held very close but the passage of the air is not blocked.
II. Consonants are classified according to the following principles: 1. according to the active speech organ; 2. according to the place of obstruction; 3. according to the type of obstruction; 4. according to the manner of the production of noise; 5. according to the work of the vocal cords; 6. according to the position of the soft palate.
1. According to the active speech organ consonants may be: 1) labial 2) lingual 3) glottal 2. According to the place of obstruction . 1) labial consonants may be: bilabial labio-dental 2) lingual consonants may be: forelingual mediolingual backlingual Forelingual consonants are devided into a) apical which may be dental alveolar palato-alveolar b) cacuminal which are post-alveolar Mediolingual consonants are palatal. Backlingual consonants are velar. 3. According to the type of obstruction consonants may be: 1) occlusive 2) constrictive 4. According to the manner of the production of noise 1) occlusive consonants are devided into a) noise which may be plosive / affricates b) sonorants 2) constrictive consonants are devided into a) noise b) sonorants which may be median / lateral. 5. According to the work of the vocal cords consonants may be: voiced voiceless. 6. According to the position of the soft palate consonants may be: oral (the soft palate is raised and the air escapes through the mouth) nasal (the soft palate is lowered to close the mouth passage and the air escapes through the nasal cavity).
VOWELS I. The English vowels are devided into 2 large groups: monophthongs diphthongs. Monophthong is a pure vowel sound. The organs of speech do not change their position throughout the duration of the vowel. Diphthong is a complex sound consisting of two vowel elements. The organs of speech start in the position of one vowel and glide in the direction of another vowel. There are 2 vowels - [ i ] and [ H] which are called diphthongized vowels, because in the articulation of these vowels the organs of speech change their position, but very slightly.
II. The English vowels may be classified according to the following principles: 1. according to the position of the tongue; 2. according to the position of the lips; 3. according to the length of the vowel; 4. according to the degree of tenseness.
1. The tongue may move in a horizontal and vertical directions. According to the horizontal position of the tongue vowels may be: a) front (when the bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth) [ J ] [ e ] [ x ] / / [ F ] b) front-retracted (when the bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth but somewhat retracted) [ I ] / [ a ] c) central (when the central part of the tongue is raised) [ A ] [ E: ] [ q ] / [ o ] d) back-advanced (when the bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth but somewhat advanced) [ R ] [ V ] e) back (when the bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth). [ P ] [ L ] [ H ] / [ O ] According to the vertical position of the tongue vowels may be: a) close (when one of the parts of the tongue comes close to the roof of the mouth) [ J ] [ I ] [ H ] [ V ] b) midopen (when the raised part of the tongue is half-way between its high and low positions) [ e ] [ E: ] [ q ] [ L ] / [ F ] [ o ] c) open (when the raised part of the tongue is very low in the mouth) [ x ] [ R ] [ P ] [ A ] / [ a ] [ O ] Each of these 3 positions (close, midopen, open) has two variations: narrow and broad. For example [ E: ] and [ q ]: the central part of the tongue is raised a little higher in the production of [ E: ] than in the production of [ q ], so [ E: ] is central, midopen narrow, and [ q ] is central, midopen broad.
2. According to the position of the tongue vowels may be: rounded [ P ] [ L ] [ V ] [ H ] / [ o ] [ O ] unrounded. 3. According to the length of the vowel vowels may be: long short, 4. Accroding to the degree of tenseness vowels may be: tense (all long vowels). lax.
III. Diphthongs. The first element of the diphthong is called the nucleus; it is strong, clear and distinct. The second element is called the glide; it is weak and indistinct. There are 8 diphthongs in English: [ eI ] [ aI ] [ OI ] [ Iq ] [ Fq ] [ Vq ] [ aV ] [ oV ] The diphthongs are devided into the diphthongs of the front row ([ Iq ] [ Fq ] [ eI ] [ aI ] [ aV ]) and the diphthongs of the back row ([ Vq ] [ oV ] [ OI ]).
Part III. PHONEME Phoneme is he smallest unit of language, existing as such a speech-sound which can distinguish one word from another or one grammatical form of a word from another form of the same word. (Наименьшая далее неделимая звуковая единица языка. Абстрактное понятие о звуке, которое объединяет различные его признаки в одно целое). For example, the English words bead [bJd] и bid [bid] are distinguished one from another by the vowel sounds [J] and [I]. The 2 grammatical forms of the noun man: the singular for man [mxn] and the plural form men [men] are distinguished by the vowel sounds [x] and [e]. Therefore, these vowel sounds represent different phonemes. It is clear that the correct pronunciation of sounds is important for the understanding of words. If you pronounce the vowel [e] instead of [x],the hearer may confuse such words as bed and bad, pen and pan, men and man. What we pronounce is always a variant of a phoneme or its allophone. Different allophones of one and the same phoneme are speech-sounds which have one or two articulatory features in common and at the same time differ from each other in some degree because of the influence of their position, neighbouring speech-sounds and other phonetic factors. The allophones cannot distinguish words or the grammatical forms of a word. For example, in the words 1) eight [ eit ] and 2) eighth [ eitT ] the consonants [t] are similar, but at the same time they are different: the [t] in 1) is pronounced with the tip of the tongue pressed against the alveolar ridge and is an alveolar consonant. [t] in 2) is pronounced with the front of the tongue pressed against the upper teeth and is a dental consonant. But if you pronounced the word eight with a dental [t] and eighth with an alveolar [t], each of these words would still be recognized and understood.
II. There are 26 letters and 44 phonemes, 6 vowel letters and 20 vowel phonemes in the English language. One and the same letter in different positions can denote different sounds and vice versa one and the same sound can be produced by different letters (letter combinations).
Part IV. ASSIMILATION. I. In speech sounds may undergo considerable changes under the influence of the neighbouring sounds. So, phonemes exist in the form of allophones. Their articulation differ from the articulation of separate phonemes.
II. There are 3 stages in the articulation of a separate phoneme: 1) the initial stage (экскурсия) - the organs of speech move away from a neutral position to the position necessary for the pronunciation of the sound; 2) the medial stage (выдержка) - the organs of speech are kept for some time in the same position; 3) the final stage (рекурсия) - the organs of speech move to a neutral position. These stages may be represented graphically: P2
P1 P3 If we pronounce sounds one after another separately with all the 3 stages of articulation, the sounds do not form a word. P2 A:2 T2
P1 P3 A:1 A3 T1 T3 It will make a word only if all the 3 sounds are joined together in the proper way. The stages of the articulation are merged.
III. Partial or complete change of the articulation of sounds in speech under the influence of the neighbouring sounds is called assimilation. 1. Assimilation may affect all the features of the articulation of a consonant or only some of them. Kinds of assimilation: a) assimilation affecting the place of obstruction b) assimilation affecting the work of the lips c) assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords.
a) This assimilation takes place when the alveolar variants of the phonemes [t], [d], [n], [l], [s], [z] are replaced by their dental variants if they are followed by the dental consonant phonemes [T], [D]. tenth [tenT], wealth [welT], read this ['ri:d 'DIs] b) This assimilation takes place when labial variants of the phonemes [k], [g], [t], [s]... are used under the influence of the following bilabial sonorant consonat [w] quick [kwIk], twenty ['twentI] language [lxngwIG], swim [swIm]. c) This assimilation takes place in the following cases: 1) What is this? [wPt Iz DIs]. In rapid speech the vowel [I] in the verb is omitted. What's this? [wPts DIs]. The voiced sound [z] is replaced by the voiceless sound [s] under the influence of the preceding voiceless consonant [t]. 2) goose [gu:s] and goosebery ['gu:zbqri]. The voiceless [s] was replaced by the voiced [z] under the influence of the following voiced [b]. 3) In the words small [smLl], please [plJz], slow [sloV], try [traI], pew [pju:], quick [kwik], twenty [twenti]... the sonorants [m], [n], [l], [r], [j], [w] are partly devoiced under the influence of the preceding voiceless consonants [s], [p], [t], [k].
2. According to the direction assimilation may be of 3 types: progressive, regressive, double. 1) progressive [prq'gresiv] ->: What's this [wPts DIs] [z] -> [s] under the influence of the preceding sound; 2) regressive [rI'gresIv] <-: tenth [tenT]; 3) double ['dAbl] <->: twenty ['twentI] a) the sonorant [w] is partly devoiced under the influence of the preceding voiceless consonant [t]. Assimilation affects the work of the vocal cords; b) the labialized variant of the phoneme [t] is used under the influence of the following bilabial consonant [w]. Assimilation affects the work of the lips.
Eg. Explain the case of assimilation: in them ['InDqm] 1) assimilation affects the place of obstruction; 2) the alveolar variant of the phoneme [n] is replaced by its dental variant under the influence of the following dental phoneme [D]; 3) assimilation is regressive.
Part V. INTONATION. I. The sentence is the basic unit of language. In speaking and reading aloud many sentences may be divided into 2 or more sense-groups. A sense-group is a word or a group of words. It forms the shortest possible unit in a sentence from the point of view of meaning, grammatical structure and intonation. From the intonational point of view, this unit is called the intonation group. It is easy,іisn't it? On the tableіthere is a lamp. An intonation group may be a whole sentence or part of it. It may consist of one word or a number of words. Aliceі, 'go to the blackboard.
II. Intonation is a unity of speech melody (речевая мелодика), phrasal stress (фразовое ударение), rhythm (ритм), voice quality (тембр), tempo of speech (темп).
III. Intonation can be shown graphically, using: 1) staves (upper / lower limits of the pitch range of the voice in speech); 2) dash (a stressed syllable); 3) dot (an unstressed syllable); 4) downward curve (a stressed syllable pronounced with a fall in pitch within that syllable); 5) upward curve (a stressed syllable pronounced with a rise in pitch).
IV. An intonation group may have: 1) pre-head (начальные безударные слоги, на более низком кровне, чем 1-й ударный); 2) head (1-й ударный, самый высокий по тону); 3) scale (серия / цепочка ударных / безударных слогов); 4) nucleus (последний ударный слог); 5) tail (безударные слоги после ядерного).
V. The scales used in English are: 1) The Descending Spepping Scale ______________ 'How do you' pronounce this word? ______________ 1a) The Upbroken Descending Scale ______________ 'Jane is і so beautiful. ______________ 2) The Ascending Stepping Scale ______________ ______________ 'Was it ,my book? ______________ ______________ 3) The Broken Scale . ______________ Her sister was very un'kind to her.______________
VI. The terminal tone is the most important element. There are several types of terminal tone: 1) The Low Fall ______________ 2) The High Fall ______________ 3) The Rise-Fall ______________ 4) The Low-Rise ______________ 5) The High-Rise ______________ 6) The Fall-Rise ______________ 7) The Level Tone ______________
He is a 'very 'clever schoolboy. _______________________________
_______________________________
Part VI. PHRASAL STRESS. "Фразовое ударение - артикуляционно-слуховое выделение одних слов в речи по сравнению с другими словами. 1. Words which are usually stressed in English unemphatic speech include: Notional parts of speech. 1) nouns 2) adjectives 3) numerals 4) notional verbs 5) adverbs 6) demonstrative pronouns 7) interrogative pronouns 8) emphatic pronouns (усилительные местоимения) 9) the absolute form of the possessive pronouns 10) postpositions (послелоги)
2. Words which are NOT stressed.
1) personal 2) possessive pronouns 3) reflexive (возвратные) 4)relative Form-words. 5) auxiliary verbs 6) modal verbs 7) prepositions 8) conjunctions 9) articles
Part VII. PHYTHM ['r ID m]. Rhythm in speech is the recurrence of stressed syllables in a sense-group at certain intervals of time. Stressed syllables tend to follow each other as nearly as possible at equal intervals of time. The unstressed syllables occupy the time between the stressed ones. The greater is the number of unstressed syllables the quicker they are pronounced. Eg. 'Andrew 'went 'back to London. 'Andrew has 'gone 'back to London. 'Andrew should have 'gone 'back to London. These sentences contain the same number of stressed, but a different number of unstressed syllables. But they are pronounced in the same period of time, although in the 1st sentence there is 1 unstressed syllable between the 1st and 2nd stressed syllables, while in the last there are 3 unstressed syllables between them. A stressed syllable pronounced together with the unstressed ones forms a rhythmic group. A sense-group may consist of one or more rhythmic groups. If there are several rhythmic groups in a sense-group, each of them takes approximately the same time to pronounce. Thus, in each of the above 3 sentences there are 4 rhythmic groups and, each of them should be pronounced in the same period of time. In English speech unstressed syllables tend to join the preceding stressed syllable. But the unstressed syllables at the beginning of a sentence join the following syllable. 'John is 'playing with his 'friends in the yard. He is 'playing tennis. Lesson 2. THE PHONEMES [p], [b]. The lips are pressed together. A comlete obstruction is formed, so the air-passage is blocked for a short time. Then the lips are quickly opened and the air escapes with plosion. In the articulation of [b] the vocal cords vibrate and this sound is voiced; the sound [p] is voiceless. [b] is a labial bilabial occlusive noise plosive voiced consonant phoneme.
[p] is a labial bilabial occlusive noise plosive voiceless consonant phoneme. The sound [p] in a stressed syllable is pronounced with aspiration before a vowel.
ASPIRATION. Aspiration is a slight puff of breath that is heard after the plosion of a voiceless plosive consonant before the beginning of the following vowel. There are 3 degrees of aspiration: 1) strongest: before long stressed vowels and diphthongs; park [ pRrk ] pie [ paI ] 2) weaker: before short vowels (unstressed vowels); pick [ pIk ] (coffeepot [ 'kPfIpPt ]) 3) no aspiration: after the sound [s] and before other consonants. space [ speIs ] place [ pleIs ]
PALATALIZATION. It takes place when the middle of the tounge is raised towards the hard palate in addition to the main articulation. There are 2 palatal consonants [ S ] and [ Z ]. All the other consonants are not palatalized, because: 1) the English forelingual consonants are apical, this position does not allow the middle of the tongue rise too high; 2) the English front vowels [ I ] and [ J ] are not so close as the Russian vowel [u], and it doesn't let the middle of the toungue rise too high; 3) the English consonants join the following vowel in the final stage of its articulation. In Russian it happens in the medial stage.
THE PHONEMES [k], [g]. The back of the tongue is pressed against the soft palate. The air-passage is blocked for a short-time. Then the air escapes with plosion. In the articulation of [g] the vocal cords are close and vibrate, so [g] is voiced, [k] is voiceless. [g] is a lingual backlingual velar occlusive noise plosive voiced consonant phoneme; [k] is a lingual backlingual velar occlusive noise voiceless consonant phoneme.
THE PHONEME [ I ]. The vowel [ I ] is pronounced with the bulk of the tongue in the front of the mouth cavity, but sightly retracted. The front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate. The lips are neutral. It is short and lax. [ I ] is a front-retracted, close, broad unrounded short and lax vowel phoneme.
THE PHONEMES [f], [v]. The lower lip is raised to the edge of the upper teeth with a flat narrowing between them. The air passes through it with friction. The vocal cords are close and vibrate in the articulation of [v], it is voiced; [f] is voiceless. [v] is a labial labio-dental constrictive noise voiced consonant phoneme; [f] is a labial labio-dental constrictive noise voiceless consonant phoneme.
THE PHONEMES [s], [z]. The tip and the front of the tongue are held close to the alveolar ridge. The sides of the front of the tongue are raised. And a round narrowing is formed through which the air passes. The sound [z] is voiced, because the vocal cords are close and vibrate. [z] is a lingual forelingual apical alveolar constrictive noise voiced consonant phoneme; [s] is a lingual forelingual apical alveolar constrictive noise voiceless consonant phoneme.
THE PHONEME [i:]. The bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth, the front of the tongue is raised high towards the hard palate. The lips are spread and neutral. During the pronunciation of this vowel the tongue may slightly change its position from a more open and retracted position to a more close and more advanced. That is why the sound is diphthongized. The tenseness increases towards the end. [i:] a front close narrow diphthongized unrounded long tense vowel phoneme.
Mistakes: 1) [i:] is replaced by the Russian[u] - keep the front of the tongue a little lower than for the Russian [u]; - make the English [i:] longer and more tense (but not too long before voiceless consonants); - give the colouring of [ы] to the beginning of the vowel and give the shade of [u] to the end of the sound. 2) [i:] is replaced by [ I ] - lengthen the vowel. The Russian vowel that resembles the English [i:] most of all is [u] in the word ива. Compare: Ива - [i:v] eve
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Notional parts of speech.
personal 
auxiliary verbs
2) the dark [ l ] - before consonants and at the end of the word:
1) personal 5) auxiliary і verbs
try [traI] compare tie [taI]