Supersonic transport: Concorde

The Concorde was the first supersonic aircraft used for regularly scheduled passenger service, built jointly by British and French aircraft manufacturers and later operated by two carriers, British Airways and Air France. The Concorde, which crosses the Atlantic in a scheduled time of three hours and fifty minutes, reduces both flight times and the effects of jet lag.

The laws of physics are absolute and mysterious, as aviators in the 1940’s discovered when their planes approached the speed of sound: about 760 miles per hour at sea level and about 660 miles per hour at 50,000 to 60,000 feet. As pilots accelerated toward these speeds, they found their planes shaking violently and running up against some sort of invisible wall, later referred to as the sound barrier.

When a vehicle achieves a speed exceeding the speed of sound, it is said to be traveling at Mach 1. At twice the speed of sound, it enters Mach 2. Mach numbers refer to the ratio of an aircraft’s speed to the speed of sound at the altitude of the vehicle. Speeds from Mach 1 to Mach 5 are designated supersonic; speeds above Mach 5 are hypersonic. When a plane travels at exactly the speed of sound, its speed is described as transonic. Speeds below the speed of sound are considered subsonic.

During World War II (1939-1945), before U.S. Air Force test pilot Chuck Yeager first achieved supersonic speeds in the Bell X-1 rocket plane in 1947, numerous pilots achieved such speeds during dives. Under such conditions, they could not control their vehicles, because shock waves built up around the controls, locking them in place and rendering them useless. Some pilots ejected under such circumstances; others died when their planes plowed into the earth at supersonic speeds.

Following World War II, U.S. Air Force designers sought to develop supersonic aircraft for the military. Engineers had to cope with the effects of the shockwaves that occur as the sound barrier is being breached. They also needed to devise ways for aircraft to endure the extremely high temperatures generated by friction on the craft’s outer surface, as speeds of Mach 1 and higher are achieved. Such heat-resistant metals as titanium were employed to replace the aluminum that covered the exteriors of most subsonic aircraft.

The work of these engineers and designers had broad implications for the commercial aircraft industry. By the 1970’s, both the United States and the Soviet Union had planes, the Soviet MiG-25 Foxbat interceptor and the U.S. SR-71 spy plane, that could fly at speeds higher than Mach 3.

Supersonic and hypersonic aircraft create shock waves because of sudden changes in air pressure. Although people on the ground experience sonic booms when supersonic and hypersonic craft fly overhead, people within them do not, because the vehicles fly faster than the sound their planes create and remain well ahead of it. Because sonic booms are destructive and annoying, often shattering both windows and the nerves of people on Earth, most supersonic flights are routed over oceans. When supersonic commercial aircraft fly over land, they usually fly at subsonic speeds.

Exercises

1. Answer the following questions. Begin your answers with such introductory phrases as: as far as I know; as far as I remember; to my mind; certainly; it's hard to tell; probably; of course; if I am not mistaken etc.

1) What advantages might a supersonic aircraft have compared with transonic and subsonic ones?

2) What do Mach numbers refer to?

3) What kind of ways did engineers find out for aircraft to endure the extremely high temperatures generated by friction on the craft’s outer surface?

4) What is the impact of shock waves on the controls at supersonic speeds?

5) What are the implications of using such heat-resistant metals as titanium to cover the exteriors of most subsonic aircraft for the commercial aircraft industry?

6) Why do supersonic and hypersonic aircraft create shock waves?

7) What are the advantages and disadvantages of supersonic and hypersonic aircraft from an environmental and safety standpoint?

 

2. Transcribe the words:

Occur; circumstance(s); outer; hypersonic; sudden; approach; Mach number; unwittingly; ratio; hypersonic; supersonic; subsonic

3. Match the words from the texts (1-10) with the definitions (A-J):

1	heat-resistant	A	create, set up
2	to cope with	B	describe or denote; have as a referent
3	occur	C	to overcome; to withstand
4	circumstance(s)	D	consequence(s), impact
5	approach	E	the ratio of an aircraft’s speed to the speed of sound
6	Mach number	F	air company
7	refer to	G	to happen
8	implication(s)	H	condition(s)
9	air carrier	I	heatproof, fireproof
10	build up	J	a way of dealing with a situation or problem

4. Find in the texts the English equivalents for the following expressions:

(1) в подобных обстоятельствах, (2) иметь далеко идущие последствия,  (3) нарушения биоритмов в связи с перелётом через несколько часовых поясов, (4) на сверхзвуковых скоростях, (5) преодолеть эффект ударной волны, а также сверхвысоких температур (как…, так и…), (6) несгораемый, (7) соотношение скорости самолёта и скорости распространения звука,        (8) катапультироваться, (9) вредное влияние звукового удара, (10) резкие колебания давления

 

5. Complete the text with the words from the box. The words may be chosen more than once.

hypersonic	dives	circumstances
ejected	transonic	the ratio
subsonic	built up	supersonic(s)

1. Mach numbers refer to … of an aircraft’s speed to the speed of sound at the altitude of the vehicle. Speeds from Mach 1 to Mach 5 are designated …; speeds above Mach 5 are …. When a plane travels at exactly the speed of sound, its speed is described as …. Speeds below the speed of sound are considered …. 2. U.S. Air Force test pilot Chuck Yeager first achieved … speeds in the Bell X-1 rocket plane in 1947. 3. Numerous pilots unwittingly achieved such speeds during …. Under such …, they could not control their vehicles, because shock waves … around the controls, locking them in place and rendering them useless. Some pilots ejected under such circumstances; others died when their planes plowed into the earth at … speeds.

6. Explain it in a different way.

To have broad implications; to cope with; to withstand; effects of jet lag; sonic boom; sonic boom; create

7. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Числом Маха или числом М называется соотношение скорости самолёта и скорости распространения звука. 2. Кроме основного значения “подход” это слово в английском языке имеет значение заход самолёта на посадку. 3. В связи с тем что звуковые удары являются разрушительными и беспокоят людей, многие маршруты сверхзвуковых самолётов проложены над океанами. 4. Сверхзвуковые самолёты Concorde позволили одновременно сократить время полёта и отрицательное влияние нарушения биоритмов в связи с перелётом через несколько часовых поясов. 5. На сверхзвуковых скоростях ударные волны блокировали и выводили из строя приборы управления, в таких обстоятельствах пилоты не могли управлять самолётами и вынуждены были катапультироваться. 6. Многие пилоты непреднамеренно достигали сверхзвуковых скоростей, когда пикировали. 7. Для обшивки корпуса сверхзвуковых самолётов используются такие термостойкие металлы, как титан. Они выдерживают сверхвысокие температуры, возникающие в результате трения внешней поверхности самолёта при высоких скоростях.

 

8 . a) The following directives relate to modifications to made Concorde safe for the skies. The message was issued by the design team to the Airline’s and Concorde’s manufacturers and specialist contractors . You are attending a weekly Health and Safety meeting.

The senior safety officer of your plant is chairing the meeting and explaining hazards and suitable safety precautions that should be taken.

On the first verification the potential problems the liners could have caused with fuel cooling, heat distribution in the fuel, fuel flow between tanks, fuel flow into the engines and the aircraft's centre of gravity, were not seen. On subsequent tests the results were confirmed paving the way for other aircraft in both the BA and Air France fleets to go though the multi-million pound modification programme:

· It was decided that the main cause of the accident was the ignition of the kerosene flowing from a massive rupture in a fuel tank caused by debris hitting the underside of the tank. After researching the possibilities for shielding the tanks the best source of protection was found to be lining the insides of certain tanks with kevlar-rubber panels. The Kevlar-rubber panels have been designed to match the density of the fuel. The installation of these panels would displace some fuel, thus reducing very slightly the overall range of the aircraft, but should not significantly alter the centre of gravity and balance calculations.

· The fitment of Kevlar lining to key fuel tanks - this will reduce the flow of fuel from any leak which may occur, which together with the removal of electrical ignition sources will make sustained fire impossible.

· The use of the new aircraft tire technology on all eight main wheels - these tyres are designed to be more resilient to damage by foreign objects and only in extreme cases can smaller, lighter tread pieces be released, giving a much lower level of energy on impact than that which occurred at Gonesse.

· The armouring of electrical wiring in the undercarriage bay – the investigators believe that the fire may have been ignited by an electrical spark in the undercarriage bay, and that protecting this area eliminates that risk.

· The water deflector retention cable must be removed and there is a slight reprofiling of the deflector to accommodate the new tyre.

· The antiskid protocols are changed. This is necessary because of the tyre change. (The anti-skid system is common to most airliners. If an aircraft is about to skid it automatically releases the brakes, for a short time, to prevent a skid developing.)

· The flat tyre detection and warning system must be working on departure.

· The electrical power to the brake cooling fans is switched off before take off and landing.

 

 

b) Make notes of the potential problems andthe advantages of the modifications. Complete the chart below. In pairs, discuss the main precautions you think should be taken by Concorde’s manufacturers with regard to the existing hazards.

Potential problems	Causes	Modifications	Advantages

c) Mind the use of highlighted language in the text.

d) You are engineers of the design team. Evaluate the project and discuss the advantages of the modifications above. Use the following expressions:

from an environmental and safety standpoint… The main danger/hazard is…   certainly it’s clear that… the most important / key factor /way to improve…   the ideal / perfect /the best  solution for especially good for… -ing To be safe, they’ll have to take care that (they’ll need to…)

e) Student A is a safety officer. Student B is an engineering manager. In pairs, discuss suitable safety precautions and engineering works that should be carried out at several plants to made Concorde safe for the skies . Swap roles and practices again. Use the words and expressions in the box.

an advantage/disadvantage of this format is…. the problem with this system is… this (shape/feature) allows to/helps to/makes it easy to/ makes it difficult to… as far as I know… that’s an important consideration… There is a risk of…-ing of… ing

 

 

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