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О . Ф . Клочкова , Е . А . КомочкинаСтр 1 из 14Следующая ⇒
МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЙ ЯДЕРНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ «МИФИ»
О. Ф. Клочкова, Е. А. Комочкина
INSIGHT INTO THE STRUCTURE Практическое пособие по английскому языку для магистрантов-физиков
Москва 2017 УДК ББК К
Клочкова О.Ф., Комочкина Е.А. Insight into the Structure / Практическое пособие по английскому языку для магистрантов-физиков. – М.: НИЯУ МИФИ, 2017. - 76 с.
Пособие предназначено для студентов магистратуры, обучающихся по физико-техническим специальностям, и ставит целью развитие компетенций профессионального общения на английском языке. При этом особый акцент делается на развитие тех навыков, которые в дальнейшем потребуются специалистам для успешной научной и практической деятельности, такой как составление аннотаций, рефератов, написание научных статей, подготовка презентаций, анализ научной литературы и пр. Пособие может быть использовано для обучения магистрантов всех кафедр факультетов ‘Т’, ‘Ф’, ‘К’, ‘А’, ‘Б’ и ИМ. Материал пособия основан на аутентичных научных текстах оригинальных периодических изданий.
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Национальный исследовательский ядерный университет «МИФИ». 115409, Москва, Каширское шоссе, 31. Типография НИЯУ МИФИ О ГЛАВЛЕНИЕ LESSON 1. Scientific discoveries. Tenses..................................... 4 LESSON 2. Measurement. Passive.............................................. 11 LESSON 3. Man and Universe. Perfect....................................... 21 LESSON 4. The Standard Model. Comparison............................ 31 LESSON 5. Predictions. Certainty or uncertainty........................ 41 LESSON 6. Quantum computers. Unreal..................................... 53 LESSON 7. Renewables. Conditionals........................................ 65 LESSON 1. Scientific discoveries. Tenses Part I Reading and Speaking Discuss the following with a partner. 1. Is the scientific community always ready to accept revolutionary ideas? 2. What major discoveries were not predicted at the beginning of the 20th century? 3. Do you remember any examples from history where most scientists originally rejected a revolutionary idea? Useful information
To read a text effectively you should decide what to read and how to read. There exist different types of reading: Surveying the text you decide whether it is useful. To survey the material you do the following: -look at the title, headings, pictures, or graphs. Skimming the text you get some general idea of it. To skim it you: -survey the text. -read the first sentences of a few paragraphs. Scanning the text you search for some specific pieces of information. To scan it you: -survey and skim the text to locate the information you need. -move quickly through the text. You don’t need to read every word. -stop when you come to the needed information Intensively reading the text you want to understand all the details in it. 3. Survey text «Science at the turn of centuries» and answer the questions.
Skim the text and answer the questions. 1. How many passages are there in the text? 2. Was the situation in science at the end of the 20th century similar to that in the 19th century? Scan the text and answer the questions. 1. What famous scientists are mentioned in the text? 2. When did researchers in quantum technology begin to show results? Read the text intensively and answer the questions. 1. Why did scientists feel satisfied at the end of the 19th century? 2. What revolutionary discoveries were unexpectedly made at that time? 3. What features make the situation in modern physics similar to the one in the late nineteenth century? Part II Time and Tenses Skim the text again paying special attention to the parts in bold and answer the question. Do the sentences with parts in bold refer to the present, past, or future? Find the sentences in the Present Simple and the Past Simple. What feature distinguishes questions in the Simple from those in other tenses? Answer the questions.
Answer the questions.
2. What grammar shows that:
Part III Vocabulary Answer the questions. 1. What is Albert Einstein most known for? 2. What was he given the Nobel Prize for? Read the paragraph. The modern concept of the photon was developed gradually by Albert Einstein to explain experimental observations that did not fit the classical wave model of light. In particular, the photon model accounted for the frequency dependence of light's energy, and explained the ability of matter and radiation to be in thermal equilibrium. It also accounted for anomalous observations, including the properties of black body radiation, that other physicists, most notably Max Planck, had sought to explain using semi- classical models, in which light is still described by Maxwell's equations, but the material objects that emit and absorb light are quantized. Although these semi- classical models contributed to the development of quantum mechanics, further experiments proved Einstein's hypothesis that light itself is quantized; the quanta of light are photons. Useful advice
Note that if a verb has a preposition, you should look it up in a dictionary with that preposition.
A 1. Electric utilities account for 40 percent of the nation's emissions of carbon dioxide, the principal greenhouse gas. 2. Since particle models cannot easily account for the refraction, diffraction and birefringence of light, wave theories of light were proposed by Rene Descartes (1637) and Robert Hooke (1665). 3. The Maxwell wave theory does not account for all properties of light. 4. Theorists have determined that the earliest moments of the fiery Big Bang could have produced these particles in precisely the abundance to account for dark matter. 5. The report does not take into account issues such as current agricultural lands swamped by rising sea levels.
B 1. Particle models remained dominant, chiefly due to the influence of Isaac Newton. 2. It is probably due to this principle that the drops of rain are so much larger in thunderstorms than in ordinary showers. 3. The variations in the resistance of metals in a finely divided state were shown to be due to the action of the electrical, or Hertzian, waves.
C 1. All these activities generate greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. 2. We face ethical as well as scientific problems and our work should contribute to welfare of future generations. Part IV Writing a paper Part I Reading and Speaking Read the text. Measurement Theory Measurement theory dates back to the 4th century BC, when a theory of magnitudes developed by the Greek mathematicians Eudoxus of Cnidus and Thaeatetus was included in Euclid's Elements. The first systematic work on observational error was produced by the English mathematician Thomas Simpson in 1757, but the fundamental work on error theory was done by two 18th-century French astronomers, Joseph-Louis, Count de Lagrange, and Pierre-Simon, Marquess de Laplace. Now the standard system in most nations, the metric system, has been modernized to take into account 20th-century technological advances. In Paris in 1960 an international convention agreed on a new metric-based system of units. This was the Systeme Internationale (SI). Six base units were adopted: the meter (length), the kilogram (mass), the second (time), the ampere (electric current), the degree Kelvin (temperature), and the candela (luminosity). Each was keyed to a standard value. The kilogram was represented by a cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sevres, France, with a duplicate at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards. The kilogram is the only one of the six units represented by a physical object as a standard. In contrast, the metre was set to be 1, 650, 763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the orange-red line of the spectrum of krypton-86, and the other units were related to similarly derived natural standards. The problem of error is one of the central concerns of measurement theory. At one time it was believed that errors of measurement could eventually be eliminated through the refinement of scientific principles and equipment. This belief is no longer held by most scientists, and almost all physical measurements reported today are accompanied by some indication of the limitation of accuracy or the probable degree of error. Among the various types of error that must be taken into account are errors of observation (which include instrumental errors, personal errors, systematic errors, and random errors), errors of sampling, and direct and indirect errors (in which one erroneous measurement is used in computing other measurements).
Useful information
A well-written paragraph usually has: – a topic sentence which gives the subject of the paragraph. The topic sentence is often the first sentence of the paragraph, – several body sentences which develop the subject, – a final sentence which concludes, summarizes or leads to the next paragraph.
5. Find the topic sentence in each paragraph of text «Measurement Theory».
Part II Passive 1. Skim text «Measurement Theory» and answer the questions. 1. Do the subjects in bold perform the action expressed by the predicates? 2. What features make the discussed predicates different from each other? 3. In what tenses can the Passive Voice be used? 4. Is it important who or what does the action? 2. Find in the text the examples of:
Translate the sentences.
Translate the sentences.
Part III Vocabulary Answer the questions. 1. Can you decipher the acronym laser? 2. What contribution did the MEPHI scientists make to the laser discovery? Read the text. Death Rays At one time, the idea of building an x-ray laser seemed outlandish, given that making any laser is challenging. Standard lasers work because atoms are like miniature batteries: they can absorb, store and release small amounts of energy in the form of photons, or particles of light. Typically they release their energy spontaneously, but early in the 20th century Albert Einstein discovered a way to trigger the release, a process known as stimulated emission. If you cause an atom to absorb a certain amount of energy and hit it with a photon having the same amount of energy, the atom can release the originally absorbed energy— producing a clone of the photon. The two photons (the original one and its clone) go forth to trigger the release of energy from a pair of other atoms, and so on, building up a clone army in an exponential chain reaction. Laser beams are the result. Even when conditions are right, though, atoms do not always clone photons. The probability that a given atom will emit a photon when hit by another is rather small, and the atom has a greater chance of releasing its energy spontaneously before that happens. Conventional lasers overcome this limitation by pumping in energy to prime the atoms and by using mirrors to send the cloned light surging back and forth, picking up new recruits. For an x-ray laser, every step of this process becomes much more difficult. An x-ray photon may contain 1, 000 times more energy than an optical photon, so each atom must absorb 1, 000 times more energy. The atoms do not hold on to their energy for long. Moreover, x-ray mirrors are hard to come by. Although these impediments are not fundamental, it takes an enormous input of energy to create the lasing conditions. In fact, the first x-ray laser got its energy from an underground nuclear bomb test. It was built for a secret project, code-named Excalibur, carried out by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory east of San Francisco. The project is still classified, although quite a bit of information about i t has been made public. The device was a component of former US president Ronald Reagan’s Strategic Defense Initiative, nicknamed “Stars Wars, ” in the 1980s and was meant to act as a death ray to shoot down missiles and satellites. During the same decade, Lawrence Livermore also built the first nonnuclear laboratory- scale version of an x-ray laser, with energy supplied by powerful optical lasers that had been designed to test properties of nuclear weapons. These were not practical research instruments, though, and the possibility that x-ray lasers would ever be used routinely for science applications seemed remote. Translate the sentences. 1. Assuring adequate security in cyberspace is one of the most challenging problems we face as we try to increase productivity and provide competitive advantage. 2. Today voice-recognition programs can identify words quite well, but a far greater challenge will be building machines that can understand what those words mean in context. 3. That opinion was challenged by Henry Markram, who announced in 2009: “It is not impossible to build a human brain and we can do it in 10 years”. 4. The long-term challenge is dealing with the actinides, materials created when uranium absorbs a neutron but refuses to split apart. 5. Reliable measurement of natural isotope abundance variations is among the biggest challenges in inorganic mass spectrometry as they are highly sensitive to methodological bias. Read and enjoy. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) attempted to create its own cyborg in 1961 in Operation Acoustic Kitty, in which a cat was cut open and fitted with an array of wires and a listening device that utilized its tail as an antenna. The project was disbanded as a failure in 1967 when the cat on its first mission (to eavesdrop on the Soviet compound in Washington, D.C.) was killed by a moving taxi sending more than five years of intensive training and $15 million down the drain. Part IV Writing a paper 1. Note that the most important information is at the beginning of a sentence, so mind the following: 1. If you are writing an article about Columbus you begin your sentence like this: Columbus discovered America. (active form).
America was discovered by Columbus. (passive form). 2. Write the sentences: 1. You are writing an article about: · Shakespeare; · Hamlet. 2. You are writing an article about: · Newton · the law of gravity 3. about: · Einstein · the theory of relativity Part I Reading and discussing Read the text. Our Place in the Universe To entertain the notion that we may, in fact, have a special location in the universe is, for many, unthinkable. Nevertheless, that is exactly what some small groups of physicists around the world have recently been considering. Ironically, assuming ourselves to be insignificant has granted cosmologists great explanatory power. It has allowed us to extrapolate from what we see in our own cosmic neighborhood to the universe at large. Huge efforts have been made in constructing state-of-the-art models of the universe based on the cosmological principle - a generalization of the Copernican principle that states that at any moment in time all points and directions in space look the same. Combined with our modern understanding of space, time and matter, the cosmological principle implies that space is expanding, that the universe is getting cooler and that it is populated by relics from its hot beginning predictions that are all borne out by observations. So why rock the boat? If the cosmological principle is so successful, why should we question it? The trouble is that recent astronomical observations have been producing some very strange results. Over the past decade astronomers have found that for a given redshift, distant supernova explosions look dimmer than expected. Redshift measures the amount that space has expanded. By measuring how much the light from distant supernovae has redshifted, cosmologists can then infer how much smaller the universe was at the time of the explosion as compared with its size today. The larger the redshift, the smaller the universe was when the supernova occurred and hence the more the universe has expanded between then and now. Answer the questions.
Part II Perfect tenses Present Perfect Perfect Simple Vs Perfect Continuous Useful information We usually think of the words: - since - for as indicating the use of the Perfect forms. Past Perfect Future Perfect Perfect forms Perfect Infinitive (to have + Ved\V3) Perfect Participle (having + Ved\V3) Answer the questions.
Part III Vocabulary Translate the sentences. In terms of – с точки зрения, исходя из, с учетом.
Part IV Writing a paper Part I Reading and Speaking Read the text. Standard Model The theories and discoveries of thousands of physicists since the 1930s have resulted in a remarkable insight into the fundamental structure of matter: everything in the universe is found to be made from a few basic building blocks called fundamental particles, governed by four fundamental forces. Our best understanding of how these particles and three of the forces are related to each other is encapsulated in the Standard Model of particle physics. Developed in the early 1970s, it has successfully explained almost all experimental results and precisely predicted a wide variety of phenomena. Over time and through many experiments, the Standard Model has become established as a well-tested physics theory. Matter particles All matter around us is made of elementary particles, the building blocks of matter. These particles occur in two basic types called quarks and leptons. Each group consists of six particles, which are related in pairs, or “generations”. The lightest and most stable particles make up the first generation, whereas the heavier and less stable particles belong to the second and third generations. All stable matter in the universe is made from particles that belong to the first generation; any heavier particles quickly decay to the next most stable level. The six quarks are paired in the three generations – the “up quark” and the “down quark” form the first generation, followed by the “charm quark” and “strange quark”, then the “top quark” and “bottom (or beauty) quark”. Quarks also come in three different “colours” and only mix in such ways as to form colourless objects. The six leptons are similarly arranged in three generations – the “electron” and the “electron neutrino”, the “muon” and the “muon neutrino”, and the “tau” and the “tau neutrino”. The electron, the muon and the tau all have an electric charge and a sizeable mass, whereas the neutrinos are electrically neutral and have very little mass. Useful information:
To write a summary you need: - to identify the main ideas; - to organize these ideas into a logical order; - to rewrite these ideas in simple sentences. Divide into two groups. Group 1: Write a summary of the part headed Matter particles. Group 2: Write a summary of the part headed Forces and carrier particles. Part II Comparison Translate the sentences.
4. Write out all the words and word combinations in exercise 3 where the compared entities are:
5. Fill in the gaps with the words: 1. 100 times, different, the greater, like, twice, the larger. 2. The higher the voltage, ___________the impulse given to electrons striking the target. 3. ____________ the redshift, the smaller the Universe was when the supernova occurred and hence the more the Universe has expanded between then and now. 4. __________ other forms of high - energy radiation, X-rays can be hazardous, but they can also be very beneficial. 5. The neutron flux expected on a commercial D-T fusion reactor is about __________that of current fusion power reactors. 6. The rechargeable lithium-ion batteries can store ____________the energy of similarly sized nickel-metal hydride batteries. 7. X-rays can be used for inspecting the insides of articles as ______________as fountain pens and electrical appliances to make sure that they have been put together properly. Part III Vocabulary Read the paragraph. Growth in information technology is particularly rapid: we're doubling its power, as measured by price-performance, bandwidth, capacity and many other measures, every year or so. That's a factor of a thousand in 10 years, a million in 20 years, and a billion in 30 years, although a slow, second level of exponential growth means that a billion-fold improvement takes only about a quarter of a century. 4. Write 2 sentences with the word combinations a factor of and a billion-fold. 5. Look up in a dictionary the meaning of:
as a verb, as an adjective;
Translate the sentences. 1. It is quite possible that a wide range of other " weakless" universes exist that are habitable but look nothing like our own. 2. They were based on erroneous principles, like the perpetual motion machines that vex patent offices. 3. Personal computers looked like mere curiosities for hobbyists for many years. 4. These are identified as the arithmetic logic unit, the control unit, the memory, and the input-output devices that we see in the classical model of what a computer " looks like. " 5. Unlike digital gates that can only take 0s and 1s as input and output 0s and 1s, Lyric's gate circuits can take inputs that are between 0s and 1s such as 0.7 or 0.234. 6. The mind schema, or our psychological sense of self, coordinates the many independent neural networks that simultaneously work away at problems in daily living so that we feel like a single mind. 7. The survey found that men are almost twice as likely as women to pause or hesitate while speaking. 8. I think it’s highly likely that as a result of any climate intervention there will be winners and losers. 9. Although the liar is less likely to wave his hands about in the air, he is more likely to use them in other ways. 10. This loss of ozone looks like it might be more in springtime and more in northern latitudes. Part IV Writing a paper Part I Reading and Speaking Read the text. Future is imperfect Predictions about technology’s future are almost always doomed. According to “2001: A Space Odyssey”, for example, humans should be making flights to the outer reaches of our solar system. Per 1984, by now we should have become a society of brainwashed drones, toiling under constant surveillance for faceless overlords. Clearly, that would never — hey, wait a second! Nevertheless, Isaac Asimov, the revered science-fiction author, made a stab at describing our lives today—back in 1964. 50 years ago Asimov called his vision “Visit to the World’s Fair of 2014.” Now it is, in fact, 2014. Shall we dust off his little time capsule and see how well his predictions fared? You might assume that his projections fall into two categories: the ones that came to pass and those that didn’t. Give the guy credit for anticipating self-driving cars, video calling, the widespread use of nuclear power and single-duty household robots. Asimov also worried at length about overpopulation, estimating the 2014 world population to be 6.5 billion. He came very close; the actual world population is about 7.1. And, yes, he also got a lot wrong. He foresaw underground and underwater homes becoming popular, along with “transportation that makes the least possible contact with the surface”—cars and boats that levitate on jets of compressed air. His weirdest prophesies concern our desperate suffering “from the disease of boredom, ” once robotics and automation have taken away most of our jobs. “The lucky few who can be involved in creative work of any sort will be the true elite of mankind, for they alone will do more than serve a machine.” If technology ever does buy us more leisure time, technology will also expand to fill it. But many of Asimov’s prognostications also fall into a third category that you might not have expected: technologies that are indeed feasible today—but aren’t yet commonplace. By now he thought that windows would be little more than “an archaic touch, ” thanks to the popularity of glowing wall panels. Sure, we have flat-screen technology—but we still like to look outside at real grass, sky and squirrels. In downtown areas, he predicted moving sidewalks. We’ve built those at airports but skipped them on city streets. And he foresaw moon colonies established by 2014, with Mars colonies already in the planning stages. In each case, what kept his hopeful prediction from coming true has not been technological; instead we seem to lack the will, desire or courage to make them a reality. His dream of “large solar-power stations” operating in the desert has been slow to arrive. But stations are finally being built, as economic and political obstacles fall. Asimov’s predictions illustrate three lessons for those who would predict the future. First, almost every new technology takes longer to arrive than sci-fi writers imagine. Second, you’ll never hit all the big ones; the history of technology is framed by enormous zigs or zags—consider, for instance, the Internet—that not even Asimov saw coming. And third, many attractive or logical developments never materialize, thanks to our own human failings. The fault, dear Isaac, is not in our engineering but in ourselves. Part II Facts and Speculation 1. Scan text “Future is imperfect”. 1. Find the sentences where the modal verbs express certainty.
Study the following. Useful information - Facts are statements that are certain or true. It is something which has really occurred or is actually the case. - Speculation is something which is not necessarily certain or true. It is a hypothesis or an opinion based on incomplete evidence. - It is important to distinguish between facts and opinions in your reading and be careful in your writing. To speculate, an author can use: Translate the sentences. Read the sentence. America was discovered by Columbus. To make this statement less certain we say: · America is believed to have been discovered by Columbus, or · Columbus is doubted /questioned to have discovered America. Write English equivalents. · Известно, что атомы… · Оказывается, электроны… · Считается, что материя… · По-видимому, вселенная… Part III Vocabulary Read the text. Like any new technology, nanomaterials carry with them potential both for good and for harm. The most salient worries concern not an apocalypse but rather the more prosaic and likely possibility that some of these novel materials may turn out to be hazardous to our health or the environment. Because ordinary materials display unique properties at the nanoscale, the nanometer-size bits of a seemingly benign material might turn out to be noxious. If natural nanoparticulates can harm us, we would be wise to carefully consider the possible actions of engineered nanomaterials. The size of nanoparticles also means that they can more readily escape into the environment and infiltrate deep into internal organs such as the lungs and liver. Adding to the concern, each nanomaterial is unique. Although researchers have conducted a number of studies on the health risks of individual materials, this approach cannot provide a comprehensive picture of the hazards—quantitative data on what materials, in what concentrations, affect the body over what timescales. In response to this uncertainty, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recently announced a grand research strategy to study the health and environmental effects of nanomaterials, a welcome step that many have been advocating for years. We hope that the program will help build a robust database that will give policy makers and the public the facts needed to understand the possible health risks that specific nanomaterials might create. And although it would be unwise to rush careful research efforts, speed is paramount. According to the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, more than 1, 000 consumer products containing nanomaterials are available in the U.S., a number that is quickly growing. Translate the sentences. A
B
C
D
Part IV Writing a paper Write a paragraph about:
Ex: Matter is believed to consist of atoms. · some facts/phenomena/ideas, etc., from your field of specialization that seem less certain today than they used to be in the past. Part I Reading and Speaking Read the text. Magical Theories Everything we know is consistent with the possibility that quantum computers are the end of the line—that is, that they are the most general kind of computer compatible with the laws of physics. But physicists do not yet have a final theory of physics, so one cannot rule out the possibility that someday a future theory might reveal a physical means to solve the problems that seem unsolvable today. As you would expect, people speculate about yet more powerful kinds of computers, some of which would make quantum computers look as pedestrian as vending machines. All of them, however, would rely on speculative changes to the laws of physics. One of the central features of quantum mechanics is a mathematical property called linearity. In 1998 Daniel S. Abrams and Seth Lloyd, both then at M.I.T., showed that if a small nonlinear term is added to the equations of quantum mechanics, quantum computers would be able to efficiently solve NP-complete problems - a particularly difficult set of mathematical challenges, which even the best existing computers cannot solve quickly. Before you get too excited, you should realize that if such a nonlinear term existed, then one could also violate Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and send signals faster than the speed of light. As Abrams and Lloyd pointed out, perhaps the best interpretation of these results is that they help to explain why quantum mechanics is linear. Another speculative type of machine would achieve extravagant computational abilities by cramming an infinite number of steps into a finite time. Unfortunately, according to physicists’ current understanding, time seems to degenerate into a sea of quantum fluctuations— something like a foam instead of a uniform smooth line—on the scale of 10–43 second (the Planck time), which would seem to make this kind of machine impossible. If time cannot be sliced with arbitrary thinness, then perhaps another way to solve NP complete problems efficiently would be to exploit time travel. Physicists studying the issue talk not about time machines but about closed timelike curves (CTCs). In essence a CTC is a route through space and time that matter or energy could travel along to meet up with itself in the past, forming a closed loop. Current physical theory is inconclusive on whether CTCs can exist, but that need not stop us from asking what the consequences would be for computer science if they did exist. Part II Unreal situations Useful information To show that the situations are unreal we can use: - Modal verbs - The Complex Subject - Verb 'wish' Modal verbs 1. Skim text “Magical Theories” and answer the questions.
Answer the questions.
Translate the sentences. 1. The goal of Einstein's unified theory was to get a theoretical framework that would show all four forces to be distinct manifestations of a single underlying force and would also establish a rationale for the presence of the particular species of apparently fundamental particles. 2. All our discoveries today are based on the ideas of men who lived before us; and without their groundwork, modern inventions would have been Impossible. 3. By the mid-1980s, a central prediction of this proposed electroweak theory – the existence of certain crucial particles, known as Ws and Zs, that would perform the same force-carrying function in weak interactions that photons do in electromagnetic interactions – had been confirmed. 4. The resulting enhancement of capabilities, combined with expanded processing power and storage, allows today’s robots to do things such as vacuum a room or help to defuse a roadside bomb – tasks that would have been impossible for commercially produced machines just a few years ago. 5. The so-called “expert systems” succeed only within strictly limited areas of competence, but they would have amazed the computer programmers of the early 1950. 6. Babbage's machine was ahead of its time, but in fact it would not have greatly exceeded the speed of a skilled human calculator - but it would have been more reliable and easier to improve. 7. Encryption schemes such as RSA classical computers show relative inability to very large numbers, but for a quantum computer this task would be trivial. 8. Theorists have determined that the earliest moments of the fiery Big Bang could have produced these particles in precisely the abundance to account for dark matter, and their interactions with normal matter would have been weak enough to make them invisible to telescopes today. 9. So after a generation of anticipation, when the physics community heard rumors that the CDMS experiment had detected something, we tuned in to the online announcement as if it were a Beatles reunion concert. 10. The majority of data currently on computer systems is protected on algorithms whose basis is the inability to factor large numbers; quantum computers would render these methods completely ineffective. The Complex Subject Note that:
- after such words as essential, important, desirable, required, demanded, etc, the Infinitive without to is used; - modal verb should is implied but often omitted. Complete the sentences. 1
2
Use of verb 'wish' Translate the sentences. 1. The personnel wished they didn’t walk back through Fukushima’s gates into the plant’s radiation-infused air. 2. Billions of people throughout history have been wishing they were offered some ways of achieving immortality. 3. When you are an entrepreneur, you have to make a decision and say, ‘This is not going to happen. I wish I could do it in Mexico, but I can’t wait five years to develop it.’ ” 4. Terrorism is nothing like what its perpetrators wish it were. 5. Machine-learning techniques have advanced so greatly that many humans wish they were as “smart” at so many of the tasks they want to pursue. 6. Women are not good at work with machines. Every now and then it is: ‘John, I wish you would look at that sewing machine’. Part III Vocabulary Read the following. It seems plausible that intelligent life requires some form of organic chemistry, which is by definition the chemistry that involves carbon. The chemical properties of carbon follow from the fact that its nucleus has an electric charge of 6, so that six electrons orbit in a neutral carbon atom. These properties allow carbon to form an immense variety of complex molecules. Furthermore, for complex organic molecules to form, elements with the chemistry of hydrogen (charge 1) and oxygen (charge 8) need to be present. To see if they could maintain organic chemistry, then, the team had to calculate whether nuclei of charge 1, 6 or 8 would decay radioactively before they could participate in chemical reactions. The stability of a nucleus partly depends on its mass, which in turn depends on the masses of the baryons it is made of. Computing the masses of baryons and nuclei starting from the masses of the quarks is extremely challenging even in our universe. But after tweaking the intensity of the interaction between quarks, one can use the baryon masses measured in our universe to estimate how small changes to the masses of the quarks would affect the masses of nuclei. In our world, the neutron is roughly 0.1 percent heavier than the proton. If the masses of the quarks were changed so that the neutron became 2 percent heavier than the proton, no long-lived form of carbon or oxygen would exist. If quark masses were adjusted to make the proton heavier than the neutron, then the proton in a hydrogen nucleus would capture the surrounding electron and turn into a neutron, so that hydrogen atoms could not exist for very long. But deuterium or tritium might still be stable, and so would some forms of oxygen and carbon. Indeed, we found that only if the proton became heavier than the neutron by more than about 1 percent would there cease to be some stable form of hydrogen. 2. Answer the questions.
Translate the sentences. A
B 1. Gradually these primitive drawings turned into letters. 2. The spread of ideas was rapid, and led in its turn to the writing of more books. 3. Any situation you can set up in a time travel story turns out to permit many consistent situations. 4. Soon, many surgeons could be turning to nanotechnology and performing delicate tasks by remotely controlling tiny robots, similar in size to a grain of rice that could travel through the body. 5. Changing the quark masses will inevitably affect which baryons and which atomic nuclei can exist without decaying quickly. In turn , the different assortment of atomic nuclei will affect chemistry. 6. As it turns out, these new ideas have implications for cosmology that are as important as the original idea of the Hot Big Bang. C
D
Make sentences.
Part VI Writing a paper Part I Reading and discussing Read the text. If electric utilities had an inexpensive way to store massive amounts of excess power generated by wind and solar when demand is low, which could later be tapped to meet peak demand, then the new renewables would expand much more quickly. Unfortunately, decades of development have provided only one good, large-scale solution: pumping water up to an elevated reservoir so it can flow back through a turbine to generate electricity. Not many localities have the elevation change or space to make this work, and the process entails net energy loss. The alternative solution is to build an extensive array of wind and solar plants across a large region—on the scale of a major nation or half of a continent—and connect them with transmission lines, maximizing the chance that a subset of the plants will always be providing power to the grid. Better and longer transmission lines are technically possible, but they are expensive to build and often face stiff local opposition. Ultimately mass adoption of renewable energy would require a fundamental reshaping of our modern energy infrastructure. For electricity, it would entail a shift from a relatively small number of very large thermal or hydropower plants to a much greater number of small, distributed wind and solar systems. For liquid fuels, it would require moving from extraction of high-power-density oil to production of lower-power-density biofuels. In many ways, a transition to renewables is more demanding than the prior shifts from coal to oil and then to natural gas. The final factor leading to a prolonged shift is the size and cost of existing infrastructure. Even if we were given free renewable energy, it would be economically unthinkable for nations, corporations or municipalities to abandon the enormous investments they have made in the fossil-fuel system, from coal mines, oil wells, gas pipelines and refineries to millions of local filling stations—infrastructure that is worth at least $20 trillion across the world. Answer the questions.
Part II Conditionals Answer the questions.
Translate the sentences.
Translate into Russian.
Present Answer the questions.
3. What form of the Infinitive, Simple or Perfect is used in the main clause to describe the present situation? Note the following In sentences with unreal condition other modal verbs than would, such as should, could, might, can be used in the main clause. Past Answer the questions.
Useful information
Sometimes one part of a sentence refers to a real situation while the other deals with an unreal one. When it comes to lying, if you have to create something, you would want to pause longer because you would want to be careful about what you are going to say. Useful information
A different situation is where one part of a sentence refers to the present while the other deals with the past time. Translate the sentences.
Useful information Inversion is frequently used in sentences with unreal condition. Translate the sentences.
Translate the sentences.
Part III Vocabulary Answer the questions.
Read the following. Keeping people healthy in space has been a major challenge since the first days of spaceflight. Even a brief journey into space could present serious health concerns for the elderly and those with high blood pressure because of the enormous compression the body endures during takeoff and reentry. In addition to shifting fluids, prolonged weightlessness weakens the skeleton. Because astronauts are no longer walking or performing other weight-bearing activities, bone loses between 1 and 2 percent of its mineral density each month in space. As an added danger, calcium that leaches from bone can contribute to kidney stones. Lights and sounds are persistent on a spacecraft as well as the eerie feeling of weightlessness. As a result, getting a good night’s rest in microgravity can be difficult. Currently there are no regulations that determine who is eligible for commercial spaceflight, so companies are free to set their own no-fly standards. Some doctors have begun drawing up screening guidelines for those who hope to vacation among the stars; others are considering how to modify a few Earth-bound medical procedures so that, if necessary, they can be applied in space. Useful information Mind the structures which follow the words and phrases, used to show reason or result. - so that, so, because, since, as + subject + verb - because of + noun clause - in order to + infinitive - As a result, Consequently, Therefore are often used at the beginning of a second sentence Part IV Writing a paper Make sentences. Ex: If dinosaurs were still alive, our planet would look different.
МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЙ ЯДЕРНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ «МИФИ»
О. Ф. Клочкова, Е. А. Комочкина
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