Types and common characteristics of learner’s dictionaries

Main problems of lexicography

Principles of Dictionaries’ Classification

Object of description

Linguistic dictionaries

Information

Time

The type of any dictionary is defined according to the choice of items included in this dictionary and its practical meaning (E.V. Kuznetsova).

Types of dictionaries are based on:

1. general
2. specialized
3. restricted
4. unilingual / monolingual
5. translating: bilingual / multilingual
6. explanatory / defining
7. universal (such as the Big Oxford Dictionary; the Webster’s Dictionary)

Assignment 5. Study the given table and make sure that you can answer the following questions:

§ What are the encyclopaedic dictionaries primarily concerned with?

§ What are the well-known and widely used English Encyclopaedias?

§ What kind of information do linguistic dictionaries display?

§ What are the main principles of classification of dictionaries? What types of dictionaries can be singled out according to these principles?

§ What do you know about encyclopaedic and linguistic dictionaries?

§ What is the difference between general and restricted dictionaries?

§ What information do explanatory and specialized dictionaries provide?

§ According to what principle are dictionaries divided into monolingual and bilingual?

§ Why dictionaries are called a) synchronic and b) diachronic?

§ Types of dictionaries are based on?

Unit 3. “The Big Oxford Dictionary”, its structure and peculiar features

Literature:

1. Ступин Л.П. Лексикография английского языка. М., 1985.- С. 51-65, 78-82.

2. Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь. / Под ред. В.Н. Ярцевой- М., СЭ, 2000.

3. Arnold I.V. The English Word. M., 1986. P. 268-271. http: //members: eb. Com. Encyclopaedia Britannica: dictionary. 8-9. 12. 1999.

4. Macaulay, Th. B. The life of Samuel Johnson with Selection from writing of Johnson. N.Y. – Chicago, 1911.-127 p.

5. A User’s Guide to the OED by Donna Lee Berg, Oxford, London, NY, 1996.

6. The Oxford English Dictionary, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989.

WORKING DEFINITIONS

of PRINCIPAL CONCEPTS

Assignment 1. Make sure that you can answer the following questions:

a) The history of compiling this dictionary:

§ What is the scope of the “Oxford English Dictionary”?

§ Why do we call the “Oxford English Dictionary” a definitive historical descriptive dictionary of English?

§ Whose ideas formed the basis of this dictionary?

§ Speak on its date of publication, original name, lexicographic concept and purpose.

b) Dictionary basics:

§ How is the material of this dictionary arranged?

§ What are the types of entries called?

§ How are headwords printed in this edition?

§ What does a main entry include? Speak on Its structure and content.

§ What do we call a ‘headword section’ and a ‘sense section’?

§ What does a cross-reference entry include?

§ What are the major problems of the OED users?

Assignment 2. Study the entry for the word ‘Mayfair’ from the “Compact Oxford English Dictionary” paying attention to its structure and content:

§ Decipher all the symbols and abbreviations in the entry.

§ State the number of definitions supplied in the entry.

§ Is it a main entry? Why?

§ What are the main parts of the entry?

§ What is peculiar in quotation paragraph?

Assignment 3. Find the entries for the words ‘cardiac’, ‘salad’ in the “User’s Guide to the OED” by Donna Lee Berg, Oxford, London, NY, 1996, answer the questions and analyse these entries in written form:

§ What information does the headword section contain?

§ What does the sense section of these entries include?

§ How are the senses listed if a headword has more than one sense?

§ What are the elements in the sense section?

Assignment 4. Find the entries for the words ‘cardiac’ and ‘salad’ in the “ MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners”, analyze them in written form and compare your results.

Unit 4. Linguistic dictionaries of the USA and their functions.

Literature:

1. Ступин Л.П. Лексикография английского языка. М., 1985. С. 83-98.

2. Arnold I.V. The English word. M., 1986. P. 271-273.

3. Hulbert J.B. Dictionaries British and American. London, 1955.

4. Zgusta L. Manual of lexicography, Praha, 1973.

5. http: //www.american/dictionary; w.-c.com/home.htm; onelook.com; yourdictionary.com/

6. Page by Page Books // http: //www.pagebypagebooks.com

Assignments 1. Make sure that you can answer the following questions:

§ Who was the author of the first unilingual American dictionary?

§ Who was at the cradle of American lexicography?

§ Who is considered to be the father of American lexicography? Why?

§ Why did the war of dictionaries outburst? When did it take place?

§ Who was the winner in the war of dictionaries in the 19^th century?

§ What were peculiar features of John Ogilvie’s “The Imperial dictionary”?

§ What was contribution of Isaak Kauffman Funk to American lexicography?

§ Enumerate the companies to publish dictionaries in the 20^th century.

Assignment 2. Study the entry for the word ‘car’ from the “Oxford English Dictionary for Advanced Learner’s” paying attention to its structure and content. Make up a written analysis.

Assignment 3. Find the entries for the word ‘car’ in the “Webster English Dictionary”, analyse it and compare your results with the previous one.

Unit 5. Types and functions of thesauruses

Literature:

1. Ступин Л.П. Лексикография английского языка. М., 1985.- C. 40-41.

2. Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь. / Под ред. В.Н. Ярцевой- М., СЭ, 2000.

3. Arnold I.V. The English word. - M., 1986. - P. 261.

4. The Penguin Pocket English Thesaurus, Clays Ltd., England. 1985.

5. Roget’s New Pocket Thesaurus in Dictionary Form/ Ed. by N. Lewis, New York, 1974.

6. Roget’s International Thesaurus.- Glasgow, 2002.

7. Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases. London, 1987.

8. Webster’s New World Thesaurus. Times Mirror. USA, New York, 1971.

9. The Encyclopaedia Britannica. – CD.

10. 10http: //www/thesaurus.com.

WORKING DEFINITIONS

of PRINCIPAL CONCEPTS

Assignment 1. Make sure that you can answer the following questions:

§ How do machine aids facilitate lexicographic practice? To what extent?

§ Why computerized versions so helpful?

§ How do they differ from any conventional dictionary?

§ Enumerate modern electronic versions of Multilex, their common characteristics and general peculiarities.

§ What other computerized encyclopaedias do you know? Describe one of them.

Assignment 2. Make up a table and describe the distinctive features of these electronic dictionaries

[1) Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary; 2) Macmillan English Dictionary ] according to the singled out parameters:

a) functions of the dictionary opening in the menu bar or in the main window;

b) display modes;

c) search capabilities;

d) the procedure of looking up a word and the presentation of entries;

e) the information afforded for each entry;

f) buttons and links within entries giving additional information about them.

Unit 9. Acquaintance with British and American encyclopaedias, linguistic encyclopaedic dictionaries of the English speaking countries.

Literature:

1. Ступин Л.П. Лексикография английского языка. М., 1989.- С. 18 – 21.

2. Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь. / Под ред. В.Н. Ярцевой.- М., 2000.

3. Энциклопедия литературных героев: Зарубежная литература, XVIII -XIX вв. - М., 1997.- 768 с.

4. Энциклопедия литературных героев: Русская литература, XVII - перв. половина XIX вв. - М., 1997.- 672 с.

5. Энциклопедия литературных произведений. – М., 1998. – 654 с.

6. Britannica 2002 Deluxe Edition.

7. The Children’s Britannica: Encyclopaedia Britannica: in 1-20 vv.- Inc.UK, 1995

8. Collier’s Encyclopaedia 1998 Sierra Home.

9. Compton’s Interactive Encyclopaedia 1997.

10. Encarta Encyclopaedia Deluxe 2001 Microsoft.

11. The Encyclopaedia Americana.

12. The Еncyclopadia Britannica.

13. La Rousse Dictionary of Literary Characters / Ed. by R. Goring, GB.-1994.

14. La Rousse Dictionary of World Folklore, GB. - 1995.

15. La Rousse Dictionary of Writers / Ed. by R. Goring, GB.- 1994.

16. The Wordsworth Dictionary of the American West /Ed. by W. Blevius. - 1993.

17. The Wordsworth Dictionary of the British History / Ed. by J.P. Kenyon.- 1981.

18. The Wordsworth Dictionary of Dreams / Ed. by G.H. Miller. - 1994.

19. The Wordsworth Dictionary of Drinks / Ed. by N. Nalley. -1996.

20. The Wordsworth Dictionary of Bible Quotations / Ed. by M.H. Mauser. - 1995.

21. The Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase and Fable / Ed. by J.H. Evans. - 1993.

22. The Wordsworth Dictionary of Proverbs / Ed. by M. Manser, S. Curtis.-1998.

23. The Wordsworth Dictionary of Pub Names / Ed. by N.Nalley. - 1996.

24. The Wordsworth Handbook of Kings and Queens / Ed. by I.E. Morby. - 1995.

25. The Wordsworth School Dictionary / Ed. by C. Brewer. - 1995.

26. The Wordsworth Dictionary of Shakespeare / Ed. by C. Boyce. - 1995.

Assignment 1. Make sure that you can answer the following questions:

§ What do encyclopedias have in common with linguistic dictionaries?

§ What is the origin of the term “encyclopaedia”?

§ Speak on the history of encyclopaedias in England.

§ What are the most famous Encyclopaedias in Britain and in the USA?

§ What is a ‘linguistic encyclopaedia’? What types and function of linguistic encyclopaedias do you know?

Assignment 2. Speak on

§ The “Encyclopaedia Britannica”. What is its volume, content, the structure of an entry?

§ The “Encyclopedia Americana”. What is its volume, content, the structure of an entry?

§ What does the “Children Britannica” include?

§ Speak on the peculiar features of the Wordsworth dictionaries. What do they have in common in comparison with linguistic dictionaries and encyclopaedias?

§ Enumerate the distinctive features of La Rousse Dictionaries. What information do they reveal?

Assignment 3.

§ Analyse the structure of an entry for the word “fortune ” from The Wordsworth Dictionary of Dreams. Does it differ from any conventional dictionary?

§ Speak on entry’s structure of any linguistic dictionary.

§ Compare the types of dictionary’s definitions in linguistic and encyclopaedic dictionaries.

Организация самостоятельной работы студентов

Реферат объемом не более 10 страниц, на английском языке: введение, основная часть, заключение и список литературы (в том числе указываются электронные источники).

Для составления реферата по лексикографии студенту необходимо выбрать соответствующую тему.

Topics of reports in lexicography:

1. Historical development of English lexicography.

2. Historical development of American lexicography.

3. The personality of Samuel Johnson and his innovations.

4. The history of compiling of the “Big Oxford dictionary” by S. Johnson.

5. Peculiar features and functions of monolingual explanatory dictionaries (18 - 20 cc.).

6. Modern series of explanatory dictionaries (20-21 cc.).

7. Special dictionaries of Great Britain and the USA: peculiarities and functions.

8. Linguistic encyclopaedic dictionaries of Great Britain, the USA and Russia.

9. Linguistic terminography as the 1^st stage of modern linguistic terminology description.

10. Corpus Linguistics, its problems and perspectives.

11. Classification of automatic translation dictionaries.

12. The Activator as a “productive dictionary” of a new type.

13. Functions and peculiarities of thesauruses and ideographic dictionaries.

14. Multilexes and Multitrans as translating dictionaries of new generation.

15. Associative type of dictionaries in Great Britain and in Russia.

16. Electronic dictionaries of various generations: from an encyclopedia to electronic reference book.

17. Peculiarities of learner’s dictionaries in Great Britain.

18. Dictionaries of language and culture as a special type of reference books.

19. The “Encyclopaedia Britannica” and its role in intercultural communication.

20. The “Encyclopaedia Americana” as a great source of language.

Темы рефератов:

1. Этапы развития английской лексикографии.

2. Этапы развития американской лексикографии.

3. Отечественные исследования по англоязычной лексикографии.

4. Личность Самуэла Джонсона и история создания С. Джонсоном «Большого словаря английского языка».

5. Особенности толковых словарей Великобритании (с 16 по 21 вв.).

6. Современные серии толковых словарей в США в 20-21 вв.

7. Специальные словари Великобритании и США и их функции.

8. Лингвистические энциклопедические словари в Великобритании, США и России.

9. Лингвистическая терминография как первый этап описания современной лингвистической терминологии.

10. Корпусная лингвистика и ее проблемы.

11. Параметры классификации автоматических переводных словарей.

12. Активатор – словарь нового типа.

13. Особенности тезаурусов и идеографических словарей.

14. Мультилексы и Мультитраны – переводные словари нового поколения.

15. Словари ассоциативного типа в России и Великобритании.

16. Электронные словари разных поколений: от энциклопедий до энциклопедических справочников.

17. Учебные словари английского языка.

18. Лингвострановедческие словари – особый тип справочников, созданных для лингвокультурологического описания.

19. Энциклопедия «Британника» и ее роль в межкультурной коммуникации.

20. Энциклопедия «Американа» как неиссякаемый источник языкового материала.

Для составления реферата по одной из указанных тем студентам необходимо проработать теоретический материал, включающий следующие блоки:

Linguistic encyclopaedias.

To describe linguistic encyclopaedias one should bear in mind that mostly they are reference books with systematic knowledge about language and methods of its description.

“Linguistic Encyclopaedias” may be general and special, e.g. describing a separate language. As to arrangement of material they may be alphabet or thematic, sometimes both. They may reflect linguistic studies at a given historic period.

Traditionally French school of lexicography should be honoured, i.e. we may pay tribute to “Encyclopedie de la Pleiade, la Langue, 1968 by Martine in 25 vv.

French “Dictionnaire Encyclopedique des Sciences de la langue” by D. Ducro, T. Tudorov in English translation by C. Poter “Encyclopaedic dictionary of the Science of language” was published in 1979.

Encyclopaedias are organised on systematic principles influenced by functional linguistics such as Russian formal school and besides structural and semiological brunch of French linguistics.

Encyclopaedias include poetical, rethorical and semiological elements to provide scientific synthesis to study language as a system and texts as language material.

3 more Encyclopaedic dictionaries should be mentioned:

1) In Germany 3 volumes of Encyclopaedic dictionary were published in 1970 “Lexikon der germanistischen Linguistik”; 2) “Die Deutsche Sprache Kleine Enzyklopadie” in 2 volumes was published (1969 – 1970); 3) “Linguistischen Worterbuch” in 3 volumes and other dictionaries.

In England “Encyclopaedia of Linguistic Information and Control” was published in oxford in 1961.

In 1989 “An Encyclopaedia of language” was issued by Collins in London. It studies the structure of language, besides it develops studying language and thought, language and psycology.

Encyclopaedia by Asher’s was published in 12 volumes in 1973. The following encyclopaedic dictionaries are very useful and helpful for students: 1) Potter S., Glossary of Linguistic Terms, 1960; 2) Hartman R.R.K., Stork F.C. “Dictionary of language and Linguistics”, 1972.

In Russia one may be proud of national Encyclopaedia of Scientific and Applied Knowledge, 1905; Literary Encyclopaedic Dictionary, 1987; Linguistic Encyclopaedic Dictionary by V.N. Jartseva which has been reprinted and revised many times in the XXth century and further on.

As to computerized encyclopedias one may get acquainted with the following versions: 1)The British Multimedia Encyclopaedia, 2)The Britannica –CD, 3)The Programme “Bookshelf”.Let’s consider the latter one.

The programme “Bookshelf ”comprises 7 various books which are different in content and structure. To analyse it in short we ought to begin with

“the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language”, it includes audio programme of correct pronunciation which contains a lot of video audioclips, images and multiplications.

2)”Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases”, its content is divided into 6 groups: three of them concern inner life of human beings, the rest are dedicated to outer life of human beings. It helps any user to enrich and to enlarge one’s vocabulary,

3)”The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations” where quotations are distributed according to special topics and headings. Any entry structure may include: heading, quotation, author’s name of citations, short bibliographical information, 4)”The Concise Columbia Encyclopaedia” which is a universal one being a prototype to printed Encyclopaedia, here short information is given in terms which are borrowings from foreign languages. Many entries are provided with different kinds of photos, images, etc. Animation is one of the main support while explaining biology, physics, chemistry, etc.

5)”The Hammond Atlas of the World” is not only a collection of geographical maps for they are united under the common programme, which presupposes clear depiction of continents and countries on the screen (monitor), states’ flags and national anthems are illustrated, capitals are included; special system of reference is from Atlas to Almanac and Encyclopaedia;

6) “The People Chronology” is a report about social and historical facts and events taking place in history (from before Christ and to nowadays 2011 including);

7)”The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2010” is a kind of anthology containing knowledge of entertaining and of information type. It includes 8 chapters: arts and mass-media, chronology, sciences of the world, peoples, the world history, science and technology, sports, the USA. Its advantages are: 1) different devices and techniques such as multi-windowing multi-way enter and/ or exit allow us to combine information from various sources to reinforce by using photo-images, video and audio recordings, 2) easy transfer from one dictionary to another, 3) instantaneous access to information, 4) capability of collecting and storage of information, 5)conversion of retrieval activity into communicative and cognitive ones, 6) multi-aspects retrieval.

To sum it up computerized dictionaries instead of conventional printed ones are used to facilitate while operating and one may enjoy its advantages for they combine translating, explanatory and encyclopaedic characteristics.

To sum it up any encyclopaedia differs from a dictionary for it can explain subjects in detail, rather than merely supplying definitions of words and phrases. Encyclopaedia is generally written in the form of many separate articles, often by experts in the field.

Questions:

1) What is the origin of the term “encyclopaedia”?

2) What are the most famous encyclopaedias in Britain and in the USA?

3) What is a “linguistic encyclopaedia”? Types of them to describe. What linguistic encyclopaedias in Russia do you know?

4) What other computerized / electronic encyclopaedias do you know? Describe two of them to your liking.

Критерии оценивания знаний

а) В результате изучения дисциплины студент должен:

§ знать и применять на практике теоретические основы, методологию и методику лексикографии (на базе современных достижений лингвистики, компьютерных и мультимедийных технологий);

§ свободно владеть специальной терминологией;

§ уметь находить и анализировать стоящие перед студентом лингвистические задачи (анализ и синтез текста на родном или иностранном языке);

§ овладеть знаниями макро- и микроструктуры каждого типа словаря, распознавая их достоинства и недостатки;

§ уметь ориентироваться в выборе словарей, лексикографических справочников и энциклопедий, то есть знать и пользоваться основными типами одноязычных и переводных словарей с целью лингвистического анализа;

§ овладеть навыками анализа любой словарной статьи, интерпретируя положительные и отрицательные качества соответствующего словаря или справочника.

б) Поскольку зачет по данной дисциплине - дифференцированный, то критерии оценки ответа по дисциплине «Лексикография» следующие:

§ Знание основных категорий и понятий данной дисциплины. Знакомство с основными теориями, взглядами, подходами и классификациями словарей и энциклопедий. Умение анализировать исследуемое явление в эволюционно-историческом и функциональном аспектах, с учетом выбора словарных справочников и энциклопедий. Корректное использование метаязыка. Адекватная интерпретация лексических, грамматических и стилистических средств, используемых в данном тексте словарной статьи. Правильность речи (грамматическая, лексическая, фонетико-интонационная).

5 «отлично» Исчерпывающее знание основных категорий и понятий. Полное представление о существующих теориях, подходах и классификациях. Корректное использование терминологии. Умение систематизировать и обобщать материал и устанавливать связь теории с практикой. Адекватное использование метаязыка при анализе лексикографического материала. Наличие собственной точки зрения и умение данную точку аргументировать. Речь в целом правильная, выразительная.

4 «хорошо» Имеются неточности в понимании основных категорий и понятий. Неполное представление о существующих теориях и классификациях. Недостаточно корректное использование терминологии. Недостаточно сформированные умения обобщения и систематизации материала, несвободное владение метаязыком, неполная интерпретация языковых средств. Наличие ошибок в речи, не носящих грубый характер.

3 «удовлетворительно» Отрывочное представление о существующих теориях и классификациях. Слабое владение категориальным аппаратом. Отсутствие логики изложения, неаргументированные выводы. Частичное понимание лексикографической проблематики. Грубые ошибки в речи.

2 «неудовлетворительно» Незнание основных категорий и понятий. Грубые ошибки в толковании теорий и классификаций. Отсутствие выводов и опоры на знание теоретического пласта. Полное непонимание содержания словарного материала, неумение его адекватно интерпретировать. Обилие грубых ошибок в речи.

Introduction to Units

These recommendations may be part of a self-study programme, it gives practice in finding and interpreting the information available in the dictionaries. The language and reference skills required to use these dictionaries effectively are isolated and practiced in a series of assignments. The assignments are short, each with a clear learning objective. It is advisable to work through the assignments from the beginning but they can be done in any order. Working at the assignments, try not to forget the following suggestions.

1. Read the notes that come before the assignments carefully, they explain some terms that may be new to you.

2. Make sure you understand the instructions for each assignment.

3. Check this by working out the example by yourself using your dictionary.

4. Do the assignments carefully but watch the time. You must work as quickly as you can.

5. Always use your dictionary even if you think you know the answer.

6. Notice the way you thinking. Be interested in how you learning and, if you make a mistake, think why.

7. Consult glossary of lexicographic terms, learn them by heart, every lesson adding new ones in your vocabulary.

Remember, the more you use the dictionary, the more uses you will find for it. Dictionary reading should become an indispensable part in your work at English.

Unit 1. Learner’s dictionaries of the English language and their peculiarities.

Literature:

1. Ступин Л.П. Лексикография английского языка. М., 1985.- С. 12-18, 118-136.

2. Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь. / Под ред. В.Н. Ярцевой.- М., СЭ, 2000.

3. Arnold I.V. The English Word. M., 1986. - P. 261-266.

4. The MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners.- International student edition.- UK, 2002.

5. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English by A. S. Hornby. – UK, 2003.

6. http: //www.britannica/com/theory/lexicography.

WORKING DEFINITIONS

of PRINCIPAL CONCEPTS

Types and common characteristics of learner’s dictionaries

Traditionally the term ‘learner’s dictionaries’ is confined to dictionaries specifically compiled to meet the demands of the learners for whom English is not their mother tongue. Learner’s dictionaries may be classified in accordance with different principles, the main of which are:

1) the scope of the word-list, and 2) the nature of the information afforded. Depending on what the scope of the word-list and the nature of the information afforded are all learner’s dictionaries can be usually divided into:

a) elementary/basic/pre-intermediate learner’s dictionaries;

b) intermediate learner’s dictionaries;

c) upper-intermediate- advanced learner’s dictionaries.

1. The scope of the word-list. The difference in the scope of the word-list between these types of learner’s dictionaries is that elementary/basic/pre-intermediate learner’s dictionaries as well as intermediate learner’s dictionaries contain only the most essential and important, the so-called key-words of English (see the Longman Elementary Dictionary), whereas upper-intermediate- advanced learner’s dictionaries contain all lexical units that the prospective user may need (see A.S. Hornby’s Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary).

The common purpose of learner’s dictionaries is to give information on what is currently accepted in modern English. Therefore not only obsolete, archaic and dialectal words are excluded, but also technical and scientific terms, substandard words and phrases. Colloquial and slang words as well as foreign words of common occurrence in English are included only if they are of sort likely to be met by students either in reading or in conversation.

For the selection of entry words into learner’s dictionaries frequency criterion is widely used. Frequency value, an important characteristic of lexical units, enables the compiler to choose the most important, the most frequently used words. The selection of items for learner’s dictionaries may also be based on other principles: the word’s collocation, stylistic reference, derivational ability, semantic structure and some others.

2. The nature of the information afforded. As tothe information they provide alllearner’s dictionaries may be divided into 2 groups: 1) those giving equal attention to the word’s semantic characteristics and the way it is used in speech (learner’s dictionaries proper);

2) those presenting different aspect of the vocabulary: presenting the syntagmatic relations between words and the word’s lexical and grammatical valency (dictionaries of collocations), providing information about the word’s structure (derivational dictionaries), supplying synonymous and antonymous words (dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms) and many others.

The structure and content of the entry in learner’s dictionaries also have some peculiar features that usually differ depending on a learner’s level in the study of English. Elementary/basic/pre-intermediate learner’s dictionaries together with intermediate learner’s dictionaries differ, sometimes greatly, from advanced learner’s dictionaries in the number of meanings given and the language used for the description of these meanings. The former present the schematic structure of the words in a simplified form and give usually the most frequently used meaning or meanings. Great importance is also attached to the language in which the definition is couched. The simplest terms are used in Elementary/basic/pre-intermediate learner’s dictionaries and intermediate learner’s dictionaries as the language must be commoner and more familiar to the learner, especially to a beginner, than the words defined.

In most learner’s dictionaries pictorial material is widely used as a means of semantisation of the words listed. Pictures may define the meanings of different nouns as well as adjectives, verbs, and adverbs.

The order of arrangement of meanings in learner’s dictionaries is usually empiric, i.e. beginning with main meaning to minor ones. Besides, the following principles of arrangement are considered proper for language learners: literal uses before figurative, general uses before special, common uses before rare and easily understandable uses before difficult.

In some learner’s dictionaries alternative spellings and pronunciation are avoided, certain derivatives and compounds are omitted.

The supplementary material in learner’s dictionaries may include lists of irregular verbs, common abbreviations, geographical names, common forenames, numerical expressions giving help in reading, speaking and writing of numbers and expressions which contain them, lists of military ranks, lists of word-formation prefixes and suffixes, tables weighs and measures, a list of colleges and universities, special signs and symbols used in various branches of science.

( Zykova I.V.” A Practical Course in English Lexicology”.- pp.192-193). “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English by A.S. Hornby” and “MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners” have achieved world-wide recognition as the most valuable practical reference books to English as a foreign language. These dictionaries have been specially written to help students of English. Being able to use both English-English dictionaries well will help a student in his/her English studies.

Assignment 4. Answer the questions to the text and be ready to discussion: