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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Text 11. SPATIAL INFORMATION THEORY AS A BASIS FOR GIS
1. The developments in spatial data handling during the last thirty years have led to operational tools in the form of geographic information systems but they have also opened our eyes to fundamental problems in the understanding of how and why these systems work. What is a geographic information system? Is it a tool? A piece of software? Or is it a complex system involving hardware, software, people and an organization? What is the difference between the newly invented terms geomatics and geoinformatics? Do they mean the same thing? Or is there an important difference in meaning? Some of these questions have been answered clearly. Some of them address more fundamental issues. However, the common denominator in all these discussions is spatial data and information 2. Spatial information is always related to geographic space, i.e., large-scale space. This is the space beyond the human body, space that represents the surrounding geographic world. Within such space, we constantly move around, we navigate in it, we conceptualize it in different ways. Geographic space is also the space of topographic and cadastral features. Geographic space is distinct from small-scale space, or table-top space1. 3. Geographic information technology is used to manipulate objects in geographic space and to acquire knowledge from spatial facts (зд. данные). Spatial Information Theory provides a basis for GIS by bringing together fields that deal with spatial reasoning2, the representation of space and human understanding of space 4. Spatial reasoning is oriented towards the deduction of spatial information from spatial facts. It deals with the framework and models for space and time and the relationships that can be identified between objects in a spatio-temporal model of real world phenomena. Scientific methods for the representation of space are important for the development of data models and data structures to represent objects in spatial database. The human understanding of space, influenced by language and cultural background, plays an important role in the way people design and use GIS as a tool. 5. Global spatial data model. With the advent of computers, electronic files and modern measuring systems, geospatial data is now digital and 3D. From a technical perspective the digital revolution has created an opportunity yet to be fully realized. Modern measuring systems such as GPS, remote sensing systems and even the electronic total station, all collect digital 3D spatial data. Yet, the conceptual spatial-data models used to organize and process measurements are separated into horizontal and vertical components. This is not in itself a problem is that traditional horizontal and vertical datum has two separate origins: Earth’s center of mass is the origin for horizontal and the geoid is the origin for vertical. In many cases, geoid and mean sea level are used interchangeably because the geoid closely approximates sea level at rest. However, the reference for vertical is the geoid, not mean sea level. 6. Mean sea level. The tough question is where is the geoid? The geoid is an equipotential surface all points of which are perpendicular to the plumb-line. The number of equipotential surfaces is infinite but the geoid is the one geopotential surface which, in a global sense, best fits mean sea level. The definition is simple and understandable for anyone standing at the coast or on the deck of a ship. In the past, mean sea level was taken to be the average of tide-gauge readings3. The Mean SeaLevel Datum4 of 1929 in the US was based upon 26 tide gauges located around the coast of North America. The implication of a mean sea-level datum is that a zero elevation contour staked out on the beach might be used to mark the boundary between what is ocean and what is not. But this is not the case. In order to avoid confusion, on 16th May 1973 the Mean Sea Level Datum of 1929 was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929. No published elevations were changed: only the name of the datum.
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Ex. 1. Useful English. Read, translate, learn these expressions and use themin sentences of your own: fundamental problems; a complex system; the surrounding geographic world; to aquire knowledge; bring together; human understanding of space; cultural background; real world phenomena; with the advent of; modern measuring systems; in many cases; the problem is…. Ex. 2. Answer the following questions: 1. What operational tool have the developments in spatial data handling during the last thirty years led to? 2. What is geographic space? 3. What is the purpose of geographic information technology? 4. What does the Spatial Information Theory provide? 5. What is spatial reasoning? 6. Why are scientific methods important?
Text 12. MINE SURVEYING 1. Mine Surveying is a branch of mining science and technology. It includes all measurements, calculations and mapping which serve the purpose of ascertaining and documenting information at all stages from prospecting to exploration and utilizing mineral deposits both by surface and underground workings. The principal activities of mine surveying are: mining cartography, making and recording calculations of mine surveying measurements, investigation and prediction of mine working effects on the surface and underground strata, mine planning in thecontext of local environment1 and subsequent rehabilitation. These activities involve: the assessment of mineral reserves and the economics of their exploitation, providing the basis of mine workings, planning, direction and control to ensure economical and safe mining operations, assisting in planning and rehabilitation of land effect by mineral operations and collaborating with local government planning authorities2. 2. Mine surveyors undertake both underground and surface surveys designed to produce information for the construction of mine plants. Mine surveyors are responsible for maintaining accurate plans of mines, for updating maps of the surfacelayout3 and for surveying the underground mine workings in order to keep a record of mining operations. They plan the direction and extent of all underground workings, and use of advanced surveying techniques and instruments.All undergroundworkings are plotted and kept regularly updated, so that surface officials and management can pinpoint any spot underground at any given time. Mine surveyors are responsible for measuring areas and volumes blasted by underground crews. Each month they measure the quantity of work done by mining contractors underground, and calculate their contractual earnings. Mine surveyors are responsible for taking regular samples of reefs exposed in underground excavations, to determine which areas are profitable to mine. In addition to this, the volume of the dumps of waste accumulating on the surface of the mining property are also surveyed. 3. Mine surveyors usually perform the practical underground work in the mornings and spend the afternoons on the surface, assimilating findings and doing thenecessary calculations4. Thus their work has to be very accurate at all times. Engineering and mine surveyors provide their professional advice and skill for the building and development of various aspects in our modern life, i.e. the construction of our homes, the development of our towns and cities and the links between them. These surveyors take measurements of the natural environment using various forms of equipment5, including satellite measuring equipment, laser scanners, total stations, new safety monitoring systems that automatically detect tiny movements in slopes and walls in open pit mines. The system can capture geo-referenced scan data. 4. More advanced solutions include modules for “Monitoring” with automatic comparison of scan data to detect displacement. Such equipment is of great help tospecialists6 because it provides early warning of abnormal movement and therefore potential failures in the active mining area that may impact on production, cause damage to equipment or even injury to personnel. Aerial and satellite imagery provide means of quickly examining large land areas and of identifying mineralization that may be indicated by differences in geologic structure or in rock. Modern equipment and instruments provide accurate measurements, models and data in various formats. Notes:
What does a mine surveyor do?
A mine surveyor is a professional engineer and architect who manages the design and future plans for a mining site. These professionals tend to come from varied educational backgrounds, and may work as independent consultants or with mining operations. A mine surveyor has a tremendous responsibility to ensure the safety of a mine for workers through accurate assessment and careful management. Becoming a mine surveyor usually requires an educational background that may include mathematics, engineering, or architecture. In addition to formal education, many surveyors receive extensive vocational and on-the-job training in their field. Some surveying jobs require a university degree, but others may substitute sufficient work experience in place of a traditional education One of the biggest jobs that a mine surveyor usually take part in is the creation of maps and plans for the mine. The surveyor must be able to take accurate measurements of the landscape and turn the measurements results into a usable map. Surveyors must also be able to research the clear boundaries of the mine area, to ensure that the operation does not encroach on other properties.
Ex. 1. Useful English. Read, translate, learn, and use these expressions insentences of you own: the principal activities; the activities involve; in the context of local environment; collaboration with local authorities; in order to keep a record (запись, регистрация); calculate the contractual earnings; such equipment is of great help; to measure the quantity of work; professional advice and skill. Ex. 2. Answer the questions. 1. What is mine surveying? 2. What sciences (disciplines) should a mine surveyor be good at to ensure the safety of a mine? 3. What are the principal activities of this science? 4. What are mine surveyors responsible for? 5. What do engineering and mine surveyors provide for? 6. What types of equipment do mine surveyor use? 7. Why is aerial and satellite imagery of great help to specialists? Text 13. HISTORY OF THE PRODUCTION
1. The word “optics” is of Greek origin, and it relates to what is seen, and optical instruments historically have been aids to vision. Though simple lenses had been in use as magnifiers for over a thousand years, and though eye-glasses had been developed in the 14th century, opticalengineering1 began in the 17th century with the development of the first precision optical instrument, the telescope. The microscope was developed almost simultaneously. Because manufacturing problems were little understood, and available glass was poor2 early instruments were primitive. Modern instrument-making industry is equipped with a great variety of optical instruments. It is only by optical methods and by making use of special optical systems that one can make precise measurements of distances with an error of 0.2 micron There is not a single branch of industry to dispense with a great number of high quality precise instruments both optical and mechanical. 2. The history of production of fine (точный) optical instruments is connected with the name of Carl Zeiss. The products and the name Zeiss enjoy an outstandingreputation3 all over the world. Carl Zeiss was born in Weimar, 1816. The German industrialist gained a worldwide reputation as a manufacturer of fine optical instruments. In 1846 Zeiss opened a workshop in Jena for producing microscopes and other optical devices. Realizing that improvements in optical instruments depended on advances in opticaltheory4, he engaged a research worker Ernest Abbe, a physics and mathematics lecturer, professor of the University of Jena. In 1866 he became Zeiss’s partner. Later they engaged Otto Scott, a chemist, who developed about 100 new kinds of optical glass and numerous types of heat-resistant glass. 3. Right from the beginning of his collaboration with Carl Zeiss in the mid-1880s, Ernst Abbe devoted a great deal of attention to optical materials. His detailed studies were focused on not only the optical properties of the types of glass then available, but also on those of liquids and minerals. The interdisciplinary collaboration of the chemist Otto Scott and the industrial physicist Ernst Abbe offered a great opportunity to the then emerging optical industry in Germany. Despite all the good results obtained with the new glass types, Abbe soon realized that he would have to continue to include crystals as optical materials in his studies. He developed the apochromat microscope objectives and used the mineral fluorite. These objectives were indeed one of the most important innovations in the field of microscope design. Fluorite is a mineral which occurs very frequently in nature. From the crystallographic viewpoint, the cubic crystal symmetry of fluorite is of importance for its use as a material in an imaging system. 4. Apochromats are highly corrected optical systems5 providing maximum optical quality and are used in microscopy and astronomy. Ernest Abbe was sure that the availability of optical materials must besafeguarded by synthesis6. In the 1930s, a laboratory for growing crystals was established at the Zeiss plant. However, it was only after Stockbarger in the USA had further developed the method of growing fluorite from vacuum melts7 for industrial use that fluorite was produced at Zeiss in the second half of the 1950s for use in its own instruments, achieving independence from natural deposits. In 1945 US forces (army) evacuated the board of management and about 100 scientists and technicians of the Carl Zeiss firm (Jena) to West Germany, where it was firmly reestablished; and it was transformed into a powerful industrial enterprise; later the Carl Zeiss firm became a world leader in optics. The history of the company Carl Zeiss is full of examples of extremely successful interaction between experimental science and instrument manufacture. Notes:
Ex. 1. Useful English . Read, translate, learn and use these expressions in sentences of your own. modern instrument-making industry; a great variety of..; a great number of high quality precise instruments; a world-wide reputation; detailed studies; the most important innovation in the field of…; must be safeguarded by..; the board of management; a world leader. Ex. 2. Complete the following sentences. 1. Modern instrument-making industry is equipped with …. 2. It is only by optical methods and making use of …. 3. There is not a single branch of industry to…. 4. The German industrialist Carl Zeiss gained a world-wide reputation as…. 5. C.Zeiss opended a workshop for …. 6. Realizing that improvements in optical instruments depended on …. 7. Right from the beginning of the collaboration of Earnest Abbe with Carl Zeiss he devoted a great deal of …. 8. The interdisciplinary collaboration of the chemist Otto Scott and…. 9. Despite all the good results obtained with the new glass types, Abbe …. 10. Appochromats are …. 11. It was only after Stockbarger in the USA had further developed the method of …. 12. The history of of the company Carl Zeiss is full of …. Ex. 3. Look through the text and pick out the most interesting information concerning the history of production of optical instruments. Text 14. METROLOGY 1. Metrology is the science of measurement, embracing all measurements in any field of human activity. Metrology is an applied scientific discipline1 (the branch of physics) that deals with setting up the units of measurement and devising units standards. The basic problems of the science of metrology are: – the establishment of a general measurement theory (standards of measurement); – the formation of units of physical quantities and systems of units; – control of measures and measurements facilities2, - and the development of methods (techniques) of precise measurements and tools for various types of measurements. Measurement begins with a definition of the measurand, the quantity that is to be measured, and it always involves a comparison of the measurand with some known quantity of the same kind. The term weights and measures signifies those standard quantities by which such comparisons are achieved. Standard quantities may be established arbitrarily or by reference to3 some universal constant. Standards for different kinds of quantities may develop separately or may be integrated into logical systems of units. A measurement standard or etalon is a material measure, measuring instrument, reference material or measuring system intended to define, realize, conserve or reproduce a unit or one or more values of a quantity to serve as a reference. Measurement is fundamental to the sciences: engineering, building and other technical matters; and to much everyday activity. 2. Measurement theory is very important for the study how numbers are assigned to objects and phenomena, and its concerns include the kinds of things that can be measured, how different measures relate to each other, and the problem of error in the measurement process. The problem of errors is one of the central concerns of measurement theory. Among the various types of error that must be taken into account are the errors of observation (which include instrumental errors, personal errors and random errors), errors of sampling, and direct and indirect errors (in which one erroneous measurement is used in computing measurements). 3. Metric system of measurement, is the international decimal system of weights and measures, based on the metre for length and the kilogram for mass, was adopted in France in 1795. Over time this system developed, so that it now includes seven base units; they are: length (metre, m); mass (kilogram, Kg); time (second, s); electric current (ampere, A); thermodynamic temperature (Kelvin, K); amount of substance (mole, mol); luminous intensity (candela, c). These seven base units of the International System of Units (SI) (from the French Systè me International d’Unité s) provide reference used to define all the measurement units of this system. The system is not static but evolves to match the world’s increasingly demanding requirements for measurements at all levels of precision and in all areas of science and technology. The SI is the only system of units that is universally recognized, so that it has a distinct advantage in establishing an international dialogue. The use of the SI also simplifies the teaching of science. For all these reasons the use of SI units is recommended in all fields of science, technology, engineering and commerce. 4. The idea of a universal system of measures and weights dates from long ago, but it was realized only a little bit more than two centuries ago. European scientists had for many years discussed the desirability of a new, rational and uniform system. It was decided that the new system would be based on a natural physical unit to ensure immutability. The first proposal for what would later become the metric system was made by a French clergyman, Gabriel Mouton, around 1670. Mouton’s [mu: 'ta: n] proposal contained three of the major characteristics of the metric system: decimalization, rational prefixes4, and the Earth’s measurement as basis for a definition. He suggested a standard linear measurement based on the length of the arc of one minute of longitude on the earth’s surface and divided decimally. The French academy settled on the length of 1/10 000 000 of a quadrant of a great circle of the Earth, measured around the poles of the meridian passing through Paris. Now the standard system in most nations, the metric system has been modernized to take into account 20th century technological advances. 5. Not until 1875 did an international conference meet in Paris to establish an International Bureau of Weights and Measures5. The international metric organization created by the Metric Convention of 1875 also has a central laboratory. The Treaty of the Metre6 signed there provided for a permanent laboratory in Sevres [sə: vr], near Paris, where international standards are kept, national standard copies7 inspected, and metrological research conducted. Since 1887 many national standards laboratories have been founded to set up and maintain standards of measurement. They also do attendant test and verification work8 for science and industry. Examples are the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in the United States, the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in the United Kingdom, and similar bodies9 in many other countries. The General Conference of Weights and Measures, with diplomatic representatives of some 40 countries, meets every six years to consider reform. The Conference selects 18 scientists who form the International Committee of Weights and Measures that governs the Bureau. 6. As science advances and methods of measurement are refined, their definitions have to be revised. The more accurate the measurements, the greater the care required in the realization of the units of measurement. The motto of the metric system expressed the hope that the new units would be “for all people, for all time”. Notes:
Ex. 1. Useful English. Read, translate, learn and use these expressions in sentencesof your own: in any field of human activity; uniform system; an applied scientific discipline; the development of methods; to deal with; to take into account; the problem of error in the measurement process; various types of errors; direct and indirect errors; the errors of observation; at all levels of precision; the use of the SI units is recommended in all fields of science and technology; the standard system in most nations; standards laboratories. Ex. 2. Translate the following word combinations: an applied scientific discipline; devise units standards; measurements facilities; the quantity that is to be measured; a comparison of the measurand with some known quantity of the same kind; how numbers are assigned to objects and phenomena; international decimal system of weights and measures; the world’s increasingly demanding requirements; the metric system has been modernized; a permanent laboratory where international standards are kept, national standard copies inspected, and metrological research conducted; errors of sampling; at all levels of precision measurement process; standard quantities; base units; the 20th century advances; standard copies; standards laboratory. Ex. 3 . Complete the following sentences. 1. Metrology is the science of… 2. Metrology is the branch of physics that deals with…. 3 . The basic problems of the science of metrology are…. Ex. 4. Translate the following word combinations: метрология – прикладная научная дисциплина; метрология связана с созданием единиц измерения и эталонов (образцов); методы точных измерений и устройств (приборов) для различных типов измерений; измерение включает сравнение измеряемой величины с некоторой известной величиной этого же класса; измерение осуществляется через сравнение измеряемой величины с некоторой известной величиной того же вида (типа); новая система должна быть основана на естественной (натуральной) физической единице (величине), чтобы обеспечить непреложность (неизменность); были основаны многие национальные метрологические лаборатории для создания и эксплуатации эталонов измерения. Ex. 5. Answer the questions. 1. What is Metrology? 2. What does Metrology as an applied discipline deal with? 3. What are the basic problems of the science of Metrology?
Text 15. ECONOMICS 1. Economics is a science studying economy. As a scholary discipline, economics is two centuries old. What exactly is the subject that the economists from Smith to Marx and to the present generation have analyzed? Economics is the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable commodities and distribute them among different people. The science of economics is based upon the facts of our everyday life. Economists study our everyday life and the life of human society in general in order to understand the whole economic system of which we are part. Most people work to earn a living. The work people do is called economic activity. All economic activities together make up the economic system of a town, a city, a country or the world. Some notable economists of the last century called economics “a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life”; “the science of choice among scare means to accomplish unlimited ends”; “the science of wealth”. The first scientist who made extraordinary contributions to economics was Adam Smith. After two centuries Adam Smith remains a towering figure in the history of economic thought (мысль). His contribution was to analyze the way that markets organized economic life and produced rapid economic growth. He showed that a system of prices and markets is able to coordinate people and business without any central direction. The scope of economics is indicated by the facts with which it deals. These consist mainly of data on output, income, employment, expenditure, interest rates, prices and related magnitude associated with individual activities of production, transportation and trade. There are four major economic goals that are generally accepted. These goals are: 1) full employment; 2) price stability; 3) economic growth; 4) an equitable distribution of income. 2. The economic environment. The economy comprises millions of people and thousands firms as well as the government and local authorities, all taking decisions about prices and wages, what to buy, sell, produce, export, import and many other matters. All these organizations and the decisions they take play a prominent part in shaping the business environment in which firms exist and operate. The economy is complicated and difficult to control and predict, but it is certainly important to all businesses. Economics promotes a better understanding of the nature and organization of different societies, the arguments underlying many of the great public issues of the day, and the operation and behaviour of business firms and other decision-making units. Economics relates to many problems in the real world. Every human society – whether it is an advanced industrial nation, a centrally planned economy, or an isolated tribal society – must confront and resolve four fundamental and interdependent economic problems: they are: a) What commodities are to be produced and in what quantities? b) How will goods be produced? с ) By whom and with what resources and in what technological manner are they to be produced? d) For whom will goods be produced? These four basic problems are common to all economies. But different societies take different approaches in solving them. The four economic tasks of every society are really about choices among the economy’s resources.
Ex. 1. Useful English. Read, translate, study and use these expressions in sentencesof your own. to use scarce resources; to earn a living; rapid economic growth; to coordinate people; operation and behaviour of business firms; dicision-making units; many problems in the real world; an advanced industrial nation; take different approaches to solve the problem. Ex. 2. Complete the following sentences: 1. Economics is …. 2. Economists study our everyday life …. 3. The work people do is called …. 4. All economic activities together make up… Ex. 3. Pick out the most interesting and important facts concerning the text ‘Economics’ so that you could retell it. Text 16. MANAGEMENT Management is a set of activities, including planning and decision making, organizing, leading, and controlling, directed at an organization’s human, financial, physical, and information resources, with the aim of achieving organizational goals in an efficient and effective manner. Management may be considered to be the art and science of making decisions in support of certain perceived objectives. The basic activities within the management process are planning and decision making (determining courses of action), organizing (coordinating activities and resources), leading (motivating and managing employees) and controlling (monitoring and evaluating activities). Management processes are applicable in a wide variety of settings, including profit-seeking organizations (large and small businesses and international businesses) and not-for-profit organizations (government organizations, educational organizations, healthcare facilities, and non-traditional organizations). Most managers have ten basic roles to play: three interpersonal roles (figurehead, leader, and liaison), three informational roles (monitor, disseminator, and spokesperson), and four decisional roles (entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator). Information is a vital part of every manager’s job. For information to be useful, it must be accurate, timely, complete, and accurate. Information management is best conceived as part of the control process. An organization’s information management requirements are determined by four factors. Two general factors are the environment and the size of the organization. Two specific factors are area and level of the organization. Kinds of managers by area include marketing, financial, operations, human resource, administrative, and specialized managers. |
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