Imagination was given to man to compensate him for what he is not. A sense of humour - to console him for what he is.

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Ginzburg R.S. et al. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. M., 1979.

Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. Oxford, 1982.

Halliday M.A.K. Language as Social Semiotics. Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning. Lnd., 1979.

Howard Ph. New words for Old. Lnd., 1980.

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Maurer D.W., High F.C. New Words - Where do they come from and where do they go. American Speech., 1982.

Patridge E. Slang To-day and Yesterday. Lnd., 1979.

Potter S. Modern Linguistics. Lnd., 1957.

Quirk R. Style and Communication in the English Language. Lnd., 1980.

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Sheard, John. The Words we Use. N.Y.., 1954.

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Амосова Н. Н. Основы английской фразеологии Л. 1963.

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Виноградов В.В. Об основных типах фразеологических единиц в русском языке. Виноградов В. В. Лексикология и лексикография. Избранные труды. М. 1977.

Волков С.C., Cенько Е.В. Неологизмы и внутренние стимулы языкового развития. Новые слова и словари новых слов. Л., 1963.

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Ивлева Г.Г. Tенденции развития слова и словарного состава. М. 1986.

Кубрякова Е.С. Роль словообразования в формировании языковой картины мира. М. 1988.

Кунин А.В. Фразеология современного английского языка. М. 1972.

Мешков О.Д. Словообразование современного английского языка. М. 1976.

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Тимошенко Т.Р. Телескопия в словообразовательной системе современного английского языка. Киев.1976.

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Dictionaries.

Bloomsbury Dictionary of New Words. M. 1996.

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Hornby The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. Lnd. 1974.

The Longman Register of New Words. M. 1990.

Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs. M. 1986.

Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English. Longman. 1981.

21st century Dictionary of Slang. N.Y. 1994.

Webster’s New World Dictionary of American English. N.Y. 1978.

Апресян Ю.Д. Новый большой англо-русский словарь. M. 1993.

Апресян Ю.Д. Англо-русский синонимический словарь. M. 1979.

Кунин А.В. Англо-русский фразеологический словарь. М. 1967.

Трофимова З.C. Dictionary of New Words and New Meanings. Изд. «Павлин», 1993.

Lecture 1

The Subject of Lexicology.

Word Definition

Types of Word.

KEEP ON SMILING!

1. Diner: Do you serve crabs here?

Waiter: We serve anyone - sit down.

2. What's black and white and red. Red (read) all over? - A newspaper.

What's a baby pig called?

- A piglet.

- So what's a baby toy called?

- A toilet.

When is a car not a car?

- When it turns into a garage.

Imagination was given to man to compensate him for what he is not. A sense of humour - to console him for what he is.

LEXICOLOGY - 2009

LECTURE 1

OUTLINE

The subject of lexicology.

Different branches of lexicology.

Lexicology and its connections with other branches of linguistics.

A word as a lexical unit.

The word stock and the theory of oppositions.

Types of lexical units.

The theoretical and practical value of lexicology.

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics studying a word as a unit of the word stock, having

· the sound, form and

· meaning,

· dealing with the vocabulary and

· the properties of words as the main units of language. (Arnold, 1986)

Lexicology is of Greek origin: le xikos (lexis) “of a word”, “logos” science, speech (learning).

The term lexeme was introduced byBenjamin Lee Whorf (1938).

Vocabulary – the system formed by the sum total of all the words and word equivalents the lg. possesses.

A word is the basic unit of a given lg. resulting from the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment.(I.V. Arnold)

Thus a word is a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit. Ex.: boy ‘a male child up to the age of 17-18’, boys, boy’s, boys’.

Lexicology:

General (lg universals)

Special (of the particular lg)

3. Descriptive (vocabulary as a system): boy, boyhood, boyish, boyishly, old boy, my dear boy, boy-friend.

Comparative, Contrastive (English and Russian lexis)

Historical or diachronic (etymology): Extralinguistic forces influencing the development of words.

In historical lexicology: diachronic approach;

In descriptive lexicology: synchronic approach;

syn – simultaneous;

chronos – time;

Hip – hop – hope- heap- - hoop; (substitution test)

Tip – top; tip – pit;

Import, n:: to import, v.;

Blackbird:: black bird

Our queer old dean – our dear old queen.

(Spoonerisms (W.A. Spooner) – jocular transposition of the initial sounds of two or more words)

Lexicology and grammar:

Head of the committee – to head a committee (interdependence oflexical and grammatical meaning)

Lexicology and etymology

Brothers (family relationship;

Brethren (arch.) (members of the club or society);

Genius – geniuses (of exceptional intellect) – genii (evil or good spirit).

Arm – arms: ‘To take arms against the sea of troubles’ – lexicalization: authorities, colours, customs, looks, manners, pictures, works.

Futurity: shall – will come, going to, future, tomorrow, by and by, time to come, hereafter;

The theory of oppositions

(N.S. Trubetzkoy):

PHONOLOGY

X R

Morphemes

MORPHOLOGY

Words, phrases, sentences

I D

C Semantic

Structure

GRAMMAR

Stylistic word value

L Morphological

Structure

STYLISTICS

Language system:

Word

G Formation

THE HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE

Word stock

Y Semantic

Relations

LEXICOGRAPHY

Listeners’ relations

Shallow- shallowness.

But: long – length;

Wide- width;

Deep- depth;

Big- size.

Functional approach:

An Outline

The definition of the word

Semantic triangle

Word Definition

Th. Hobbes (1588-1679) - (materialistic approach)

Words are not mere sounds but names of matter.

I. P. Pavlov(second signal system):

A universal signal that can substitute any other signal from the environment in evoking a response in a human organism.

Machine translation:

The word is defined

· Syntactically;

· Semantically;

· Phonologically and

· By combining various approaches.

Syntactically: Bloomfield, H.Sweet, S. Potter:

“A minimum free form” ( forms which occur as sentences).

H. Sweet:

“the minimum sentence”.

Syntactic and semantic aspects:

E. Sapir: ‘A word is one of the smallest completely satisfying bits of isolated ‘meaning’ into which the sentence resolves itself. It cannot be cut into without a disturbance of meaning’…(the essence of indivisibility: a(living or dead) lion and alive).Each other and one another are word-units(not word-groups).

J. Lyons: two criteria: ‘positional mobility and uninterruptability’:

(the- boy-s-walk-ed-slow-ly-up-the-hill) –

‘One of the characteristics of the word is that it tends to be internally stable (in terms of the order of the component morphemes) but positionally mobile, (permutable with other words in the same sentence)

Semantic treatment:

Stephen Ullmann’s

«A connected discourse will fall into a certain number of meaningful segments which are ultimately composed of meaningful units. These meaningful units are called words»

Semantic, phonological and grammatical criteria:

A. Meillet

The association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment (objections: child but a pretty child – no difference).

Phonological approach:

Л.С. Бархударов:

- Последовательность морфем (в простейшем случае – одна морфема) внутри которой не может быть вставлена другая такая же последовательность морфем

The semantic-phonological approach:

Gardiner:

An articulate sound – symbol in its aspect of denoting smth which is spoken about

E.M. Mednicova

The basic unit of language.It directly corresponds to the object of thought (referent) which is a generalized reverberation of a certain “slice”, “piece” of objective reality – and by immediately referring to it names the thing meant

Ladislave Zgusta: Words are treated

As Interpersonal units of Language, as signs of the system of a language above all to construct sentences

Sidney M.:

A sequence of graphemes which can occur between space, or the representation of such a sequence on morphemic level

Antrushina

Afanasieva

Morosova

A speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, successible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and semantic unity

Collins Cobuild

Is a single unit of language that can be represented in writing or speech

Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (OALD)

– A sound/combination of sounds which expresses a meaning and forms an independent unit of grammar or vocabulary of a language

American Heritage Dictionary (1985): ”a sound or a combination of sounds, or its representation in writing or printing, that symbolizes and communicates a meaning and may consist of a single morpheme or of a combination of morphemes”.

Collins English Dictionary (1986):

“One of the units of speech or string that native speakers of a language usually regard as the smallest isolated meaningful element of the language, although linguists would analyze these further into morphemes”.

Chambers English Dictionary (1988):

“A unit of spoken language: a written sign representing such an utterance”.

I.V. Arnold:

‘A word is the smallest significant unit of a given lg. capable of functioning alone and characterized by

· positional mobility within a sentence

· morphological uninterruptability

· semantic integrity.

These definitions create the basis of opposition btw.

· The word and the phrase,

· The word and the phoneme,

· The word and the morpheme.

The common feature: they are all units of the lg.

The weak point of the definitions: no indication of the relationship btw. Lg. and thought.

The word is a fundamental unit of lg.

It is a dialectal unity of form and content.

Content (meaning) reflects human notions, concepts are fixed in the meaning of words, reflecting the reality by the content of words.

F. de Saussure

A word is a linguistic sign ‘signifiant’ (signifier).

It refers to ‘signifie’ (that which is signified)

Sign

Signifie

Thing

Gotlieb Frege(1848-1925)

C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards’ triangles:

Semantic triangle,

Triangle of signification,

Frege’s semiotic triangle,

O. and R.’s basic triangle

Referential approach:

Word meaning –

The Word.

ESSENTIAL WORD CHARACTERISTICS:

STRUCTURAL SEMANTIC

	Phonetic Structure Morphological Structure Grammatical Structure Syntactic Structure	Nominal Onomastic character Significant Indivisible Isolated

Types of Word

Eight kinds of words

The orthographic word

The phonological word

The morphological word

The lexical word

The grammatical word

The onomastic word

The lexicographical word

The statistical word

Three main types of motivation (inner word form):

Phonetical: a certain similarity btw. the sounds and the sense:

(bang, buzz, giggle, gurgle, hiss, purr), Cuckoo.

Sound imitative words:

Babble, chatter, gabble, prattle; purr, moo, crow, bark, bleat.

Morphological motivation or word-building meaning:

ex ‘former’:

(ex-president, ex-wife); but expect, export(borrowed wds – no motivation)

re-‘again, back’(rebuild, reclaim, resell) but recover “get better”

Word-building meaning: V +-er =N:

Writer, receiver, bomber, rocker, knocker but number and smoker(a fuzzy set).

Semantic motivation:

coexistence of direct and figurative meanings of the same words:

(mouth of a river, cave, furnace), (jacket of a book, electric fire.

Morphological and semantic motivation in compound words (eyewash, headache, watchdog).

First-nighter, honeymooner, two- seater, three-decker (a sandwich) are different in their motivation: lick-spittle “a flattering or a servile person”. Teenager” - a person in his or her teens” (historically traced).

Non-motivated words:

No connection btw. meaning and its form at the present stage of lg. development:

earn > (ge) earnian “to harvest”;

not > nought > OE nowiht < no-wiht “nothing”.

Faded motivation: lost in the history and not felt at present.

Folk etymology or mistaken motivation (a nightmare, may-day ”SOS”).

Sound symbolism:

fl – quick movement:

flap, flip, flop, flitter, flimmer, flicker, flutter, flash, flush, flare;

( but flat, floor, flower)

gl(light, fire) – glare, glitter, glow, glimmer;

sl(mud)-sleet, slime, slush but sleep, slender.

TEST

1. Name as many approaches to the word definition as possible.

2. Enumerate types of a word.

3. Give examples of different motivations of words.

Lecture 3

Lexical Meaning and Semantic structure of English Words

Outline

1. Semantics and Semasiology

2. The lexical meaning versus notion

3. Denotative and connotative meaning

4. The semantic structure of polysemantic words

5. Contextual analysis

6. Componential analysis

SEMANTICS

¨ The meaning of words and phrases

¨ Study of Linguistic meaning

¨ Study of relationship between the sign and the referent

Changes in meaning and form

SEMASIOLOGY

· Branch of Linguistics – studies Linguistic meaning

· Branch of Linguistics – studies Lexical meaning of words and phrases and semantic change

СЕМАСИОЛОГИЯ

СЕМАНТИКА

· Все содержание языка

· Один из разделов семиотики

I. Structural approach

The common denominator of all the meanings of words belonging to a lexico-grammatical class of words (LGC).

Generic terms are words - representatives of lexico-grammatical meaning, substituting any word of the class:

Matter (material nouns),

Group (collective nouns),

Person (personal nouns).

The denotative meaning is a linguistic expression for a concept or a name for an individual object (the conceptual content of a word).

The denotative meaning is

· significative, if the referent (denotatum) is a concept (grief, sorrow, happiness) or

· demonstrative if the referent is an individual object (a table, a chair).

The pragmatic component of denotation is connotational meaning based on the complex associations of verbal or situational contexts:

1. the speaker’s attitude – slay:: kill,

2. approval or disapproval – clique:: group, hireling;

3. the speaker’s emotions – mummy:: mother,

4. degree of their intensity – adore:: love).

Semantic components (semes) of the denotative meaning:

MAN + HUMAN + ADULT + MALE

WOMAN+ HUMAN +ADULT - MALE

BOY +HUMAN – ADULT + MALE

GIRL + HUMAN - ADULT - MALE

POLYCEMY reflects the possibility of using the same name in secondary nomination for objects possessing common features (proximity) which are sometimes only implied in the original meaning (implicational):

Birth-

The act or time to be born,

An origin or being,

Descent, family.

Implicational (epidigmatic) meaning is the possibility of a word to create new derived meanings or words:

Bomb ”great success” “great failure”(Am. slang);

Drive “What can he be driving at? ”(fig.)

The meaning conveys

· some reflection of objective reality,

· the speaker’s state of mind,

· his attitude to what he is speaking about.

Brat:: baby;

Kid:: child.

III. Thelexical meaning of many words depends upon the sphere of their usage and the typical contexts whereas a notion belongs to abstract logic and has no ties with any stylistic sphere and does not contain any emotive components.

Fancy that! Fancy my making a mistake like that!

IV. The complexity of the notion is determined by the relationships of the extra-linguistic reality reflected in human consciousness. The complexity of each word meaning is due to the fact that it combines lexical meaning with lexico-grammatical meaning, and with emotional colouring, stylistic peculiarities and connotations. Bright, clear, good, quick, steady, thin are qualitative adjectives having degrees of comparison.

Рука- hand, arm, etc.

The lexical meaning of the word is the realization or naming of the notion, emotion or object by means of a definite lg. system subject to the influence of grammar and vocabulary peculiarities of that lg.

The denotative meaning is essentially cognitive:

Evaluative connotation

expresses approval or disapproval:

Implicational meaning

Is the implied information

· associated with the word it refers to and

· what the speakers know about the referent.

· It is a potential often realized in the derivatives (wolf-wolfish).

TYPES OF CONNOTATIONS

ARNOL D I. Evaluative.

celebrated well known for... notorious

II. Emotional/Effective

anger – indignation - rage

III. Expressive/Intensifying

ire- rage

IV. Stylistic (bookish, formal...)

Emotional Excitement induced by intense displeasure Indignation righteous generous intensify of anger

Anger merely the emotional reaction

Ire greater intensity (literary)

Rage adds the implication of lost self-control a sense of frustration, temporary derangement of the mind

Choler anger (bookish)

PRAGMATIC CONNOTATIONS

A N T R U S H I N A Of Cause = causative flush (from modesty, shame) redden (from anger)

Manner Trot - pace

Duration Stare, glimpse

Att. Circumstances peep (through a hole) peer (through the fog)

Att. Features Handsome: fine proportions tall statue Beautiful: classical features & perfect figure Pretty: small delicate features

express judgement of a person/ thing which is contem-plated perceived with sensuous aethetic pleasure BEAUTIFUL LOVELY HANDSOME PRETTY BONNY GOOD-LOOKING the riskest in significance very strong implication excites the keenest pleasure of senses, mind and soul keen emotional delight rather than intellectual or spiritual but little emotions! a judgement of approval smth pleasant to look upon perfect in form, taste, proportion pleases by its delicacy, grace, charm rather than elegance, style, perfection + diminutiveness / exquisiteness pleasing qualities: sweetness, simplicity, healthiness, plumpness handsome, but pretty less expressive than handsome (Br. scot.)

To take rest by a suspension of conscious-ness (mystery-ous state, sleep) SLEEP KIP NAP DOZE SNOOZE SHUT-EYE The periodical repose To lie down to sleep intentionally short (slang) Intentionally a short, light sleep esp. in the day-time Falling asleep for a brief period unintentionally naturally casual, slangy are not aware of (coll)

Angle

Concrete Abstract

Honey

Special General

Earth

The planet the world

Main/primary Secondary

Jug- vessel jug - prison

Central Peripheric

Prison

Building any place

Narrow Extended

School

To go to school

Conversational Words:

mad	upset	lots of
tell off	funny	dear
fed up	great	give up

Faded Words

nice	nasty	rich	like
good	strange	poor	got
bad	interesting	get

		productive	strong
		prosperous	lush
		copious	bright
	colour	resonant	creamy
	sound	tasty	affluent
RICH…	taste	abundant	ample
	food	luxuriant	warm
	life	fruitful	vivid
	person	delicious	lavish
		opulent	deep
		plentiful	juicy
		wealthy

WORD ORIGIN

I n f o r m a l	Obsolete Words	F o r m a l	Current Words
scyppend desceaft healdend ræ dend æ ð eling dē mend	creator creation chief ruler prince judge
Old English Words	Borrowings
Pluck Sweat Guts Clothes Climb Begin Book Pride Lung	Courage Fr. Perspire Fr. Determination L. Attire Fr. Ascend L. Commence Fr. Volume Fr. Hubris Dr. Pulmonary L.

STYLISTIC TYPES OF WORDS

Antrushina: Ginsburg

Stylistically

Colloqual

Common colloquial

marked

Neutral

Slang

Substandard colloqual

Dialect

Vulgar-s

Learned

Poetic

Prof-sms

Slang

Terminological

Jargon -s

Archaic

Dialect

I.R. Galperin

Neutral	Literary	Non-Literary Familiar Colloqual
	- General	- Low
	- Poetic	- Jargon
-	- Scientific - Learned - Archaic - Neologisms	- Slang - Vulgarisms - Dialectal words

Witness1 “evidence, testimony” – a direct, abstract, primary meaning;

Witness2 “a person with knowledge of an event” – a metonymical, concrete, secondary;

Witness3 “a person who gives evidence in court” – metonymical, concrete, secondary;

Test