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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Привет всем, спасибо что приобрели данный материал(бесплатно, блин, приобрели). Тут будет небольшое объяснение заданий и че в них вообще надо делать.Стр 1 из 4Следующая ⇒
Привет всем, спасибо что приобрели данный материал(бесплатно, блин, приобрели). Тут будет небольшое объяснение заданий и че в них вообще надо делать. Разделены сами задания римскими циферками(I, II, III и т.д.), которые могут в свою очередь иметь подразделы(A, B и т.д.). Начнем же с задания I: I. Тут всего 120 тестов, все сделаны, ничего сложного II. Тут уже посложнее, задания на перефраз, тут то и есть 2 подраздела A и B III. В задании III дана таблица слов(это таблица на 2 колонки, а одна колонка), к каждому их этих слов надо подобрать синонимы, которые надо взять из головы – их я тоже все по вставлял, разберетесь(по моему только одно слово не вставил, уж не знаю какой там синоним) IV. В задании IV то же самое что и в III, только вместо синонимов надо подобрать антонимы V. В задании V дана таблица слов, которым надо дать определения, не знаю уж как их надо давать(устно или письменно), но я не буду писать определения для каждого слова, уж сорян VI. Задание VI – даны 12 текстов, с пропущенным словами и словами для вставки сверху в табличке, их надо вставить, а ниже текста надо придумать 3 вопроса к данному тексту. В общем то все уже сделано, как вставлены слова, так и написаны вопросы VII. Задание VII, как в нем говориться, здесь нужно прочитать текст и перевести его на русский язык СО СЛОВАРЕМ, так что просто возьмите с собой словарик и с этим не будет никаких проблем, я не могу переводить все те тексты, слишком долго(но если кому то надо какой то конкретный текст, то писать в лс) VIII. Ну и последнее это темы на разговорную речь, тут уж никак помочь не могу, че наговорите, то наговорите
Я гарантирую правильность в 95%(если не 100%), чего я надеюсь вам достаточно. Сделал и проверил сам, так что все должно быть в порядке и если хорошо ответите устную часть, а письменную спишите отсюда, то «5» гарантирую. Удачи. Да прибудет с вами сила
Промежуточный контроль I.Choose the best answer among A, B, С, and D. (Grammar Test) 1. It ___ that medical profession is the most difficult to master. a) considers b) consider c) is considering d) is considered 2. Your presentation should ___ by the lecturer. a) to be checked b) to check c) check d) be checked 3. The scientists ___ already ___ the new equipment for the dental surgery. a) have … tested b) haven’t … tested c) had … tested d) hadn’t … tested 4. I’m afraid you won’t be able to leave on Sunday. Treatment ___ by the end of the week. a) has not completed b) hasn’t been completed c) won’t have completed d) won’t have been completed 5. My friend said that he _____ at the lecture on biochemistry the day before. a) wasn’t b) isn’t c) hasn’t been d) hadn’t been 6. Tomorrow I will talk to the professor ____ daughter is my group mate. a) who b) whose c) that d) these 7. “You may take these books to the library.” “Which ____? There are so many on the shelf.” a) ones b) that c) one d) those 8. Medical science managed ______ smallpox. a) eradicate b) eradicating c) to eradicate d) to be eradicated 9. There will be only five of us at the party. Could you invite ____ else? a) someone b) anyone c) no one d) anything 10. The patient felt rather well so the physician administered ____ antibiotics ____ analgesics. a) either…or b) both…and c) neither…nor d) not only… but also
11. One ___ that potent drugs may cause serious side effects. a) is believed b) believe c) is believing d) believes 12. The doctor agreed ___ on this patient in a week. a) to operate b) be operated c) to be operated d) will operate 13. Up to now my brother and his friend ___ only 10 tasks for the module. a) prepared b) has prepared c) have prepared d) prepared 14. My friend ___ at the module test because he ______ the material properly. a) failed… hadn’t revised b) failed … didn’t revise c) fail … hasn’t revised d) had failed … didn’t revise 15. Any pharmacy needs an area _____ drugs. a) to be stored b) storing c) stored d) to store 16. The nurse ___is giving injections in your ward is very experienced. a) which b) whose c) who d) of which 17. “Let’s go to the laboratory tomorrow at 8.00.” “I don’t want to go ___ so early.” a) somewhere b) then c) there d) everywhere 18. No cases of poliomyelitis ___ for the last two decades. a) have been reported b) has been reported c) have reported d) were reported 19. I’ll have to buy a new stethoscope. I could find mine ______. a) everywhere b) somewhere c) anywhere d) nowhere 20. He knows nothing about _____ bones _____ muscles. a) either … or b) neither … nor c) and… and d) and… or 21. Does your friend live _____ in Switzerland? a) everywhere b) nowhere c) somewhere d) anywhere 22. You should _______ the alternatives to drugs. a) to be checked b) be checked c) to check d) check 23. ___ you ___ that medication yet? a) Had … taken b) Have … taken c) Did … take d) Do … take 24. Where ___she ___ before she started working at our hospital? a) did.. study b) has … studied c) had … studied d) do … study 25. My friend asked me where I ______ to spend my summer holidays.
a) would b) was going c) will d) am going 26. I would recommend you the doctor ____ the best surgeon in our hospital. a) who is b) when is c) which is d) what is 27. Do you have a stethoscope? If not, you may take the ___ on the table. a) ones b) it c) that d) one 28. One ___ that the first drugstores were opened in Baghdad in 754. a) supposing b) is supposed c) supposes d) suppose 29. This method ___ by the specialists of our clinic. a) is developed b) is developing c) developed d) has been developed 30. There are ___ universal donors ___ universal recipients. a) not only … but also b) either … or c) neither … nor d) and … and 31. Jane wanted ____________ a qualified medical treatment. a) to give b) to be giving c) to be given d) giving 32. She _____________a surgeon two years ago. a) becomes b) became c) has become d) had become 33. My brother _________________ home since last Sunday. a) wasn’t b) hasn’t been c) hadn’t been d) isn’t 34. Patients with obesity are recommended to reduce consumption ____ carbohydrates. a) from b) with c) of d) on 35. Yesterday while I ___________ for my English test, my friend ______ me. a) prepared, called b) preparing, calling c) was preparing, called d) am preparing, is calling 36. It is ____________ that this drug shouldn’t be taken before going to bed. a) consider b) considered c) considering d) been considered 37. By the 1st of June I _________my essay. a) will complete b) will be completed c) will have completed d) will have been completed 38. The doctor thought that he ___________ her patient once more on Wednesday. a) will examine b) examined c) examines d) would examine. 39. Dr Jones __________ articles have been published in our journal is a very famous researcher. a) what b) those c) whose d) that 40. Pharmacy is a field of health sciences ____________ on safe and effective use of medications. a) focused b) focus c) focusing d) has focused
4 1. Muscles contract _______ one bone towards another. a) pulled b) be pulled c) pulling d) pull 42. I hope by July I ______ all my exams. a) will pass b) am passing c) will have passed d) would have passed 43. May I take _______´ s stethoscope? a) anybody b) someone c) no one d) anything 44. I _____ Jane for 4 years. a) knew b) know c) have known d) had known 45. Nobody _____ to support him in this situation. a) doesn´ t want b) didn´ t want c) want d) wants 46. Patients expect _____ the procedure in detail. a) to explain b) to be explaining c) to be explained d) explaining 47. Multicellular organisms are _____ of the combination of cells, tissues and organs. a) composing b) composes c) being composed d) composed 48. The x-ray showed that the bone ______ eight weeks before. a) was broken b) broke c) had been broken d) has been broken 49. She ______ for a walk only after she _______ her report in physics. a) goes, finished b) went, had finished c) went, has finished d) has gone, had finished 50. ____ the nurse ____ gave me analgesic yesterday. a) It is...when b) It was....when c) It was....that d) It was....who 51. The patient said that he ______ the following Monday. a) will have been operated on b) will be operated on c) was operated on d) would be operated on 52. She ______ the cadaver the day before yesterday. a) dissects b) has dissected c) had dissected d) dissected 53. The physician said that the patient ____ feel gastric discomfort. a) may b) can c) might have d) might 54. I hope this weekend will be _______ to remember. a) which b) whose c) one d) this 55. _______ could do this exercise. a) Something b) Somewhere c) Everything d) No one 56. I am sure you _____ your presentation by tomorrow night. a) finish b) will finish c) will have finished d) have finished 57. She ______ hundreds of doctors in her life. a) visited b) visits c) has visited d) was visiting 58. Yesterday I met Mr McKnight, the professor _____ lectures I like very much. a) which b) that c) whom d) whose 59. He wanted his proposal ________. a) to accept b) to be accepted c) to have accepted d) to be accepting 60. A lecture on osteoporosis _____ already _____ by this prominent professor. a) will be delivered b) will have been delivered c) has been delivered d) has delivered 61. They ___ pregnant women shouldn’t take aspirin. a) considers b) consider c) are considered d) are considering 62. A doctor provides first aid to all regardless of their ability ___. a) to pay b) pay c) to be paid d) be paid 63. I ___ articles since I returned to clinic. a) haven’t written b) hasn’t written c) didn’t write d) don’t write 64. I went to bed after I ______ all the English words. a) have memorised b) had memorised c) memorised d) would memorise 65. He said that CSMU students _______ to university on Saturday and Sunday. a) didn’t go b) don’t go c) won’t go d) wouldn’t have gone 66. It was the nervous system ___ our group chose as a topic for presentation. a) what b) who c) why d) that 67. May I help you with this procedure? I’ll ___ immediately. a) do b) make it c) do it d) do one 68. The patient ___by the doctor before the results of his analyses _____ ready. a) had been examined… were b) has been examined … were c ) was examined … had been d) examined … were 69. ____ is safe from the flu. You can catch it at any place. a) Anybody b) Everybody c) Somebody d) Nobody 70. The doctor prescribed ___ balanced diet ___ some medications to the patient. a) either … or b) both … and c) nothing … nor d) and … and 71. One ___ that anaemia can be caused by chronic blood loss. a) was believed b) is believed c) believed d) believes 72. It is such a pity that Kate felt unwell and had ______ early. a) to leave b) to be left c) leave d) be left 73. They ___ just ___ an exam in chemistry. a) has … passed b) have … passed c) were … passing d) had… passed 74. By the end of the first year medical students ___ all Latin terms. a) will have learned b) would have learned c) will learn d) would learn 75. The lecturer said the biggest bone in the body ___the femur in the thigh. a) am b) are c) was d)were 76. Yesterday we met Mr Goldsmith ___ students had won competitions. a) of which b) who c) whose d) which 77. Oh, there are some new journals in the library. Which ___ would you take? a) one b) that c) those d) these 78. This method ___ never ___ in clinical practice. a) has … been used b) have … been used c) has … used d) have … used 79. Can you ask ___to help me? a) someone b) somebody c) anybody d) nobody 80. We don’t need ____plasma ___ blood for transfusion. a) either … or b) both … and c) neither … nor d) not only … but also 81. It ___ that the most popular type of chemist’s shops is community pharmacy. a) knowing b) knows c) is known d) was known 82. People expect ___________ advice on minor problems by a pharmacist. a) to be given b) to give c) be given d) giving 83. Why ___ he ___ at the anatomy test yesterday? a) did … fail b) has … failed c) have … failed d) had …failed 84. The patient ______ the course of antibiotics by next Saturday. a) will complete b) is completing c) completes d) will have completed 85. He said the results ______ to the GP yet. a) has not been brought b) had not been brought c) were not brought d) would not be brought 86. Mitochondria provide energy ______ cells need to function. a) of which b) who c) whose d) which 87. Which computer did you use? – I used the ____ in your surgery. a) one b) those c) that d) ones 88. My pen won’t write. Can I take ____________’s pen? a) someone b) everyone c) no one d) anyone 89. _______ Robert Boyle ______ reported the first transfusion between animals. a) It is ___ that b) It was ____ that c) It was ___ who d) It is ___ who 90. Blood group 0 has ___ A ___ B antigens. a) neither … nor b) either … or c) both … and d) and … also 91. My friend promised that by the end of the term she ______ all the new words. a) will learn b) would learn c) will have learnt d) would have learnt 92. We can improve muscle tone _______ physical exercises. a) done b) having done c) doing d) do 93. YesterdayI met Dr Simpson __________ daughter is a medical student, too. a) that b) those c) which d) whose 94. This patient expects _____ blood transfusion tomorrow. a) to give b) be giving c) to be given d) giving 95. We went home only when all the tests ________. a) were done b) did c) had been done d) have been done 96. Is there ____________ else in the waiting area? a) someone b) no one c) anyone d) everyone 97. The doctor said that the patient ____ hypnotics. a) takes b) is taking c) was taking d) will take 98. We __________ more than twenty module tests so far. a) have passed b) passed c) has passed d) have been passed 99. My father ______ a new sphygmomanometer at the chemist’s three days ago. a) buys b) has bought c) had bought d) bought 100. A lecture on balanced diet _______ by professor Miles lately. a) will be delivered b) will have been delivered c) has been delivered d) has delivered 101. A prescription area ________ with a prescription counter. a) equipped b) is equipping c) is equipped d) has equipped 102. One _________ that it is very difficult to study at a medical school. a) knows b) is known c) knew d) was known 103. Average life expectancy in Europe _____ dramatically over the last hundred years. a) had risen b) rose c) is rising d) has risen 104. This patient _______ just _________ by the consultant. a) has … examined c) had … been examined b) has … been examined d) had … examined 105. My brother has dreamt ___________ a surgeon since childhood. a) becoming b) become c) will become d) to become 106. I was late. So when I came the lecture _______________. a) had started b) started c) would start d) has started 107. The article _____ by next Friday. a) will be finished b) will have finished c) will finish d) will have been finished 108. He said that he ____ at home the day before. a) was b) has been c) had been d) would be 109. Dr Smith is the physician ____ methods of therapy are very popular. a) which b) that c) those d) whose 110. It ____ antiemetics ___ prevent vomiting. a) is ….that b) is…which c) was….that d) was….who 111. ____ anyone ___ patient N. yet? a) Does…examine b) Is …examining c) Had….examined d) Has…examined 112. It ___ antihistamines ___ are prescribed to allergic patients. a) was…who b) was…that c) is….that d) is…who 113. The right lung is bigger than the left _______. a) one b) ones c) those d) that 114. Don’t worry, Mum. I _________ everything by the exam. a) will have revised b) have revised c) will revise d) would have revised 115. Physicians ___ antibiotics for more than 100 years. a) use b) are using c) have used d) used 116. Vitamins and different minerals should ___ in our diet. a) supply b) to be supplied c) to supply d) be supplied 117. After Peter ____ his homework, he ____ out. a) had completed, went b) has completed, went c) completes, went d) will complete, will go. 118. The nurse said that Dr Brown ___ an operation at that moment. a) is making b) made c) was making d) had made 119. antihypertensive drugs are used ___________ high blood pressure. a) to treat b) treat c) to be treated d) be treated 120. _______ could answer the question correctly. a) Something b) Nothing c) Everything d) No one II. Tasks on transformation: A. Report the following sentences: 1. The surgeon said: “This drug has certain side effects.” The surgeon said that ___ the drug had certain side effects ________________________________. 2. My friend said: “I was at the conference last year.” My friend said that __ he had been at the conference last year ___________________________. 3. The lecturer said: “I’ll have checked your papers by Monday.” The lecturer said that ____ he would have checked my papers by monday ______________. 4. The nurse said: “Dr Johnson is making an operation.” The nurse said that __ Dr Johnson was making an operation __________________________. 5. The professor said: “Your mother will recover in a week.” The professor said that __ my mother would recover in a week ______________________. 6. The paediatrician said: “In deficiency of Vitamin D your child may develop rickets.” The paediatrician said that _ in deficiency of vitamin D my child might develop rickets _______________. 7. The patient said: “I am not feeling very well.” The patient said that __ he was not feeling very well _____________________. 8. My mother said: “I hope you visited your granny last weekend.” My mother said that __ she hoped that I had visited my granny last weekend __________________. 9. The nurse said: “After taking these drugs you may have nausea.” The nurse said that _ after taking these drugs I might have nausea ______________________. 10. The patient said: “I cannot move my right foot.” The patient said that __ i could not move my right foot ____________________. 11. Our lecturer said: “I have answered all your questions.” Our lecturer said that _ he had answered all our questions _______________________. 12. The physician said: “I am examining a patient with osteoporosis now.” The physician said that __ he was examining a patient with osteoporosis ___________. 13. The patient said: “The professor examined me yesterday.” The patient said that __ that the professor had examined me yesterday ___________________. 14. The doctor said: “I will confirm my diagnosis after tests.” The doctor said that ___ he would confirm my diagnosis after tests _______________________. 15. The visitor said to Jane: “I can bring you more books.” The visitor said to Jane that _ he could bring me more books ______________________. 16. The patient said: “I will be discharged from the hospital tomorrow.” The patient said that ___ he would be discharged from hospital the day after today _________. 17. The doctor said: “This patient had rickets in childhood.” The doctor said that __ this patient had rickets in childhood _____________________. 18. The nurse said to the patient: “I can give you another injection of a pain-killer.” The nurse said to the patient that _ she could give me another injection of pain-killer ____________. 19. The nurse said: “You may see the dentist on Monday.” The nurse said that ____ i might see the dentist on monday ______________________. 20. The doctor said: “I’ve prescribed you some painkillers.” The doctor said that ___ he had prescribed me some painkillers ________________________. 21. The patient said: “I don’t normally have headaches.” The patient said that ___ he did not normally have headaches _____________________________. 22. The nurse said: “The doctor will see you next Tuesday.” The nurse said that ___ the doctor would see me next tuesday __________________________. 23. The doctor said: “The consultant examined your mother yesterday.” The doctor said that ___ the consultant had examined my mother the day before today ______________. 24. Jack said: “My friend never goes to hospital.” Jack said that __ hid friend never went to hospital __________________________. 25. My friend said: “I’ve found something interesting on the Internet.” My friend said that __ he had found something interesting on the internet ________________________. 26. The doctor said: “I am looking for my stethoscope.” The doctor said that _________ he was looking for his stethoscope __________________. 27. The nurse said to the patient: “Today you can eat only porridges.” The nurse said to the patient that __ that day he could eat only porridges _________________________. 28. The professor said: “Robert Hook discovered a cell in 1665.” The professor said that ___ Robert Hook had discovered a cell in 1665 ___________________. 29. The doctor said: “This drug is not safe for pregnant women.” The doctor said that __ that drug was not safe for pregnant women ________________________. 30. The patient said: “I may go home tomorrow.” The patient said that ____ he might go home the day after today ___________________________. 31. The professor said: “Students cannot write out prescriptions to patients.” The professor said that ___students could not write out prescriptions to patients_____. 32. The doctor said: “I am waiting for you next Wednesday.” The doctor said that ___ he was waiting for me next wednesday ____________________________. 33. The patient said: “Two years ago I had appendicitis.” The patient said that ___ two years ago I had had appendicitis _________________________. 34. The professor said: “Vitamin C was isolated in 1932.” The professor said that ___ the vitamin C had been isolated in 1932 _______________. 35. The nurse said to me: “I am going to take your blood pressure.” The nurse said to me that ____s he was going to take my blood pressure ______________. 36. The patient said: “The doctor will confirm his diagnosis after investigations.” The patient said that __ the doctor would confirm my diagnosis after investigations _________________. Text 1
Tissues are materials made up of groups of similar ___ cells __. There are four main types of tissue in the human body. Epithelial one forms __ coverings _____ like the skin, lining membranes and glands. Connective tissue helps to _ support __ and bind parts together, holding them in place. There are several types of connective tissue including bone, cartilage, ligaments, fatty and elastic tissue, also blood and _ lymph ___ (the fluid tissues). Muscular tissue has the power of _ contraction ___, which causes movement. __ nervous __ one conducts nerve impulses. Tissues are jointed into larger units called organs, such as the heart, lungs, brain, liver. A system is a group of organs, which together carry out one of the essential functions of the body. There are nine systems in the human organism. All of these systems work harmoniously together in a _ healthy _ body. 1. ___ What does tissue consist of _______________________________________________? 2. ____ What are the types of the connective tissue __________________________________? 3. ___ What nervous tissue is responsible for ______________________________________________? Text 2
All living things, including the human body, are made up of living _ cells ___. The cell is the structural and the functional _ unit __ with which the human body is built. Just as many kinds of materials may be used in the construction of a large building, in the same way many different kinds of cells are found in the body. A cell has the following parts: cell _ membrane __ outer covering; protoplasm, the main substance of the cell; a nucleus, which _ controls ____ activities of the cell. Cells perform the following functions: digestion– intake of the _ nutrients ____; excretion– eliminating of _ waste products ___; respiration– taking and using oxygen, and giving out carbon dioxide; growth and repair; _ reproduction _______ – simply dividing one cell into two. Besides, some cells move about and some have special functions. 1. _______ What is the cell _______________________________________? 2. ____ What reproduction is ___________________________________________________? 3. ___ What nucleus is responsible for _____________________________________________________? Text 3
The body has a strong framework of bones called the _ skeleton ___. The skeleton is covered by muscles and other soft tissues, and by skin on the outside. Some body parts form spaces called _ cavities _____, in which important internal organs are protected. The _ cranial ____cavity or skull contains the brain. The thoracic cavity or chest contains the lungs, the air passages – trachea and bronchial tubes, the _ oesophagus ____, which lies behind the trachea, the heart, the great blood vessels, and the thoracic duct. The abdominal cavity, which is _ separated _____ from the thoracic cavity by a dome-shaped muscle called the diaphragm, contains the _ stomach ______, the intestines, the liver, the spleen and other organs. The pelvic cavity contains the _ reproductive ____ organs, the bladder when empty (when full it rises into the abdominal cavity), and the rectum. 1. __ What does the cranial cavity store ____________________________________________________? 2. __ _Where does the liver situated _______________________________________________________? 3. _____ What structure separates thoracic and abdominal cavities ___________________________? Text 4
Nutrients are the nutritious components in foods that an _ organism ___ uses to survive and grow. They can be ___ received ____ from the environment. They are used to build and repair tissues, regulate body processes, and are converted to and used for energy. Organic nutrients include __ carbohydrates __, fats, proteins (or their building blocks, amino acids), and vitamins. Inorganic chemical compounds such as dietary minerals, _ water _____, and oxygen may also be considered nutrients. A nutrient is called " essential" if it must be obtained from an external _ source _______, either because the organism cannot synthesize it or produces insufficient quantities. Nutrients needed in very _ small ______ amounts are micronutrients and those that are needed in larger quantities are called macronutrients. The effects of nutrients are dose-dependent and shortages are called _ deficiencies ________.
1. ______ Where can we receive nutrients _________________________________________________? 2. _____ What quantity of nutrients do we need ___________________________________________? 3. ________ What kind of inorganic nutrients must we consume ______________________________? Text 5
__ cells _____ are the smallest units of life. In complex organisms, cells group together with one another to form __ tissues ____. Tissues provide the numerous functions of organs. The study of tissues is called histology. The human body is composed of four basic types of tissues: epithelial, _ connective _____, muscular, and nervous tissues. These tissues vary in their composition and their _ function _____. Epithelium forms the coverings of _ surfaces ____ of the body. Connective tissue is the most widely distributed tissue type in the human body. Its role is to _ protect _____, support, and bind together parts of the body. Muscular tissue is a tissue characterized by the ability to __ contract _____ upon stimulation. It is extremely elastic and can produce movement. Nervous tissue receives stimuli and conducts impulses. It is the main component of the nervous system and the brain. 1. _____ How many types of tissue human body includes _____________________________________? 2. ______ What is the function of the connective tissue ____________________________? 3. ______ What is the main components on nervous system and ________________________________? Text 6
The lymphatic system consists of organs, ___ ducts _____, and nodes. The lymph vessels form a network in the body as the blood network. It transports a watery clear fluid called _ lymph _____. This fluid distributes immune cells and other factors throughout the body. Lymph organs are found in every part of the body except the__ brain ________. The major parts of the system are the _ bone marrow _____, spleen, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and the tonsils. The other organs of the body, including the heart, lungs, intestines, liver, and skin also contain lymphatic _ tissue ____. The ducts of the lymphatic system provide transportation for _ proteins ______, fats, and other substances in lymph. The lymph is drained from the tissue in microscopic blind-ended vessels called lymph__ capillaries ______. 1. __ What are the main structures of the lymphatic system ___________________________________? 2. ___ What organ doesn’t include any lymphatic tissue __________________________________? 3. __ For what does lymphatic system provide transportation ____________________________? Text 7
Blood __ transfusion ______is a very common hospital procedure nowadays. But this is more than just taking blood from one person and using it to help another. Although all blood __ contains ___ the same basic components (red cells, white cells, _ platelets ____, and plasma), not everyone has the same types ofantigenson the _ surface ______ of their red blood cells. So, the four main blood groups are: blood group A, blood group B, blood group AB, and blood group O. Blood cell markers are microscopic. Each unit of blood goes through a dozen tests to check for infectious ___ diseases ___ and establish the blood type. Only after these tests the blood transfusion can be given to the _ recipient _____. Sometimes, a transfusion is an __ emergency ____(like losing blood after an accident). Sometimes it's expected (as with treatment for cancer). 1. _________ What do we call emergency transfusion _________________________________? 2. ___ How many blood types can blood be divided on ___________________________________? 3. __ When transfusion is not emergency but expected __________________________________? Text 8
There are three basic types of muscles in the body (smooth, cardiac, and _ skeletal _____). Smooth muscle or " _ involuntary _____ muscle" is found within the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, _ stomach ______, intestines, blood vessels, etc. Smooth muscle cells contain only one nucleus. Cardiac muscle is also an " involuntary muscle" but it is striated in structure. Like smooth muscle, cardiac muscle cells _ contain ____ only one nucleus. Cardiac muscle is found only within the _ heart ___. Skeletal muscle or " voluntary muscle" is fixed by tendons to the bone and is used to produce skeletal movement such as locomotion. Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated with the __ nuclei ____ peripherally located. Skeletal muscle is called '__ striated ___' because of the stripes seen under light microscopy. 1. ____ How many types of muscle tissue is in the body ______________________________________? 2. ___ Why do we call skeletal muscle “striated” _______________________________________? 3. ___ Where cardiac muscle can only be found ____________________________________? Text 9
The muscular system is the biological system of humans that produces _ movement __. The muscular system is controlled through the _ nervous system ____, but some muscles, like cardiac muscle, can be completely autonomous. Muscle is contractile __ tissue ___ and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic _ germ ___ cells. Its function is to produce _ force ____ and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Much of muscle contraction occurs without conscious thought and is necessary for survival, like the contraction of the ___ heart _____or peristalsis. Voluntary muscle contraction is used to move the body and can be __ controlled ____, such as movements of fingers or movements of biceps and triceps. 1. __ What layer of the embryonic germ does muscle tissue derived from _____________________? 2. ___ Why do we can contract some of our muscles without a thought ________________________? 3. ___ Movements of which muscles can be controlled ______________________________________? Text 10
The bones of the head and neck play the vital role of supporting the_ brain ____, sensory organs, nerves, and blood vessels of the head and _ protect ____ these structures from mechanical injuries. Movements of these bones by the attached _ muscles ____ of the head provide for facial expressions, eating, speech, and head movement. The skull consists of 22 __ cranial ___ and facial bones, which, with the exception of the _ mandible ___, are tightly fused together. The skull encases and protects the brain as well as the special sense organs of vision, hearing, balance, taste and smell. The skull is _ supported ___ by the highest vertebra, called the atlas. The atlas turns on the _ vertebra _____ below it, the axis, which allows the skull to turn from side to side.
1. ___ What do facial muscles provide ______________________________________________? 2. ___ Which bone does not tightly fused with others cranial bones __________________________? 3. _ How many bones does the skull consist of ____________________________? Text 11
The amount of blood in a human body varies depending on factors such as _ age ____, sex, overall health and even where a person lives. For example, __ men ___ tend to have more blood than women of comparable size and weight. Blood carries out many critical functions in the body. It transports _ nutrients ___ and oxygen to the body’s cells and moves _ hormones ___ and chemicals around the body. It also takes away _ waste products __ from those cells. Blood also plays a special role in regulating body temperature. As part of the immune system, blood also helps fight diseases. If you get an injury, the platelets in blood begin to _ clot ___ helping to stop bleeding. This self-repair function prevents from further _ blood loss ____, which can become fatal in cases of massive bleeding. 1. _ What are the main factors which influence on the amount of blood ______________________? 2. _ What substances does the blood transport through the body ____________________________? 3. __ Does the blood play any role at immune protection _____________________? Text 12
Most __ skeletal __ muscles are attached to two bones through tendons. Tendons are tough bands of connective _ tissue ___ whose strong collagen fibers firmly attach muscles to bones. Larger tendons contain a thin internal septum, a few blood vessels, and specialized stereognostic nerves. __ tendons __ are under extreme stress when muscles pull on them, so they are very strong and are woven (вплетены) into the coverings of both muscles and bones. Muscles move by shortening their _ length ___, pulling on tendons, and moving bones closer to each other. They have the ability to _ stretch _____or contract and still return to the original shape. Skeletal muscles are sometimes called _ voluntary __, because we have direct control over them through nervous impulses from our _ brain ______.
1. __ How do skeletal muscles attached to the bone ____________________________________? 2. _ What do large tendons consist of _____________________________? 3. _ What is the centre of the impulses sent to our muscles ______________________________? The Cell
Life is both wonderful and majestic. Yet for all of its majesty, all organisms are composed of the fundamental unit of life, the cell. The cell is the simplest unit of matter that is alive. From the unicellular bacteria to multicellular animals, the cell is one of the basic organizational principles of biology. Let's look at some of the components of this basic organizer of living organisms. There are two primary types of cells: eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are called so because they have a true nucleus. The nucleus, which houses DNA, is contained within a membrane and separated from other cellular structures. Prokaryotic cells, however, have no true nucleus. DNA in a prokaryotic cell is not separated from the rest of the cell but coiled up in a region called the nucleoid. Eukaryotes grow and reproduce through a process called mitosis. In organisms that also reproduce sexually, the reproductive cells are produced by a type of cell division called meiosis. Most prokaryotes reproduce through a process called binary fission. During binary fission, the single DNA molecule replicates and the original cell is divided into two identical daughter cells. DNA and Evolution Deoxyribonucleic acid (or DNA) is the scheme for all inherited characteristics in living things. It is a very long sequence, written in code that needs to be transcribed and translated before a cell can make the proteins that are essential for life. Any sort of changes in the DNA sequence can lead to changes in those proteins, and in turn, they can cause changes in the traits those proteins control. Changes at a molecular level lead to microevolution of species. The DNA in living things is highly conserved. DNA has only four nitrogenous bases that are responsible for all differences in living things on the Earth. Adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine line up in a specific order and a group of three, or a cordon, code for one of 20 amino acids found on the Earth. The order of those amino acids determines what protein is made. It is really fantastic that only four nitrogenous bases that make only 20 amino acids explain all diversity of life on the Earth. There has not been any other code or system found in any living, or once living, organism on the Earth. Organisms from bacteria to humans to dinosaurs all have the same DNA system as a genetic code. This may be evidence of the fact that all life developed from a single common ancestor.
Pectoral and Pelvic Girdles
The pectoral girdle connects the upper limb (arm) bones to the axial skeleton and consists of the left and right clavicles and left and right scapulae. The humerus is the bone of the upper arm. It forms the ball and socket joint of the shoulder with the scapula and the elbow joint with the lower arm bones. The radius and ulna are the two bones of the forearm. The ulna is on the medial side of the forearm and forms a hinge joint with the humerus at the elbow. The radius allows the forearm and hand to turn over at the wrist joint. The lower arm bones form the wrist joint with the carpals, a group of eight small bones that give added flexibility to the wrist. Formed by the left and right hip bones, the pelvic girdle connects the lower limb (leg) bones to the axial skeleton. The femur is the largest bone in the body and the only bone of the thigh (femoral) region. The femur forms the ball and socket hip joint with the hip bone and forms the knee joint with the tibia and patella. The tibia and fibula are the bones of the lower leg. The tibia is much larger than the fibula and bears almost all of the body’s weight. The tibia and fibula form the ankle joint with the talus, one of the seven tarsal bones in the foot. The tarsals form the posterior end of the foot and heel. The tarsals form joints with the five long metatarsals of the foot. Types of Bones All of the bones of the body can be divided into five types: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid. Long. Long bones have greater length than width and are the major bones of the limbs. Long bones grow more than the other classes of bone throughout childhood. A hollow medullary cavity is found in the centre of long bones and serves as a storage area for bone marrow. Examples of long bones include the femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, and phalanges. Short. Short bones have almost the same length and width and are often cubed or round in shape. The carpal bones of the wrist and the tarsal bones of the foot are examples of short bones. Flat. Flat bones vary greatly in size and shape, but have the common feature of being very thin in one direction. Because they are thin, flat bones do not have a medullar cavity like the long bones. the ribs and hip bones are examples of flat bones. Irregular. Irregular bones have a shape that does not fit the pattern of the long, short, or flat bones. The vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx of the spine Sesamoid. The sesamoid bones are formed after birth inside of tendons that run across joints. The patella and the pisiform bone of the carpals are the only sesamoid bones that are counted as part of the 206 bones of the body.
Vitamin E Vitamin E is an important fat-soluble antioxidant compound that aids the body in neutralizing the harmful after-effects of oxidation of fats. This vitamin plays an important role in stopping free-radical production, a key method of preventing the development of chronic diseases and ageing. But we can not only take extra vitamin E supplements, but also use an organic diet to get a large amount this antioxidant lipid. In fact, there are many foods with vitamin E. 1. Almonds. Almonds are one the best vitamin E foods. Just 30 g of almonds give 7.4 milligrams of vitamin E. You can also take it in the form of almond milk and almond oils. 2. Raw Seeds. Raw seeds, such as sunflower, pumpkin and sesame, are another common food with vitamin E. In fact, eating just ¼ of a cup of sunflower seeds gives you 90.5% of your recommended daily value, making them one of the best vitamin E foods you can eat daily. 3. Hazelnuts. A perfect snack during a long workday, eating just 30 g of hazelnuts can provide you with approximately 20% of our daily requirements of vitamin E. 4. Broccoli. For generations now, broccoli has been considered one of the best detox foods, but it’s also one of the healthiest foods high in Vitamin E. Just one cup of steamed broccoli will provide you with 4% of your daily requirements. The Spine
The vertebral column (backbone, spine) – extending from the skull to the coccyx – forms the skeleton of the neck and back and the main part of the skeleton (the articulated bones of the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum). Most vertebral columns in adults are 72 to 75 cm long, of which about one-fourth is formed by 4 discs, which separate and bind the vertebrae together. The vertebral column: § protects the spinal cord and spinal nerves, § supports the weight of the body, § provides rigidity, flexibility and stability for the body and the head, § plays an important role in posture and locomotion – movement from one place to another. The range of movements of the vertebral column varies according to the region and the individual. Movements of the vertebral column are freer in the cervical and lumber regions. Flexion, extension, lateral bending, and rotation of the neck are especially free. Movements are extraordinary in some people, such as acrobats who begin to train during early childhood. The mobility of the vertebral column results from the compressibility and elasticity of the intervetebral discs. The following movements of the vertebral column are possible: flexion, extension, lateral bending, and rotation.
The Vertebral Column
The vertebral column in an adult typically consists of 33 vertebrae of five regions: 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumber, 5 sacral, and 4 vertebrae of the coccyx. Motion occurs between only 24 vertebrae: cranial, thoracic and lumber. The five sacral vertebrae are fused to form the coccyx. The vertebrae gradually become larger to the sacrum, and then they become progressively smaller to the coccyx. The vertebral column is flexible because it consists of many small bones – the vertebrae – that are separated by intervetebral discs. Although the movement between each two vertebrae is small, a column is flexible, rigid and stable. The back muscles produce movements of the vertebral column. But these movements are not produced only by the back muscles. They are assisted by gravity and the action of the anterolateral abdominal muscles. Although movements between adjacent vertebrae are relatevely small, especially in the thoracic region, the summation of all the small movements produces a considerable range of movement of the vertebral column as a whole (e.g. when bending to touch the toes). Movements of the vertebral column are freer in the cervical and lumbar regions than elsewhere.
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