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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Standardized Methods for Benefit–Cost Analysis
It _ important to develop standardized methods for benefit and cost (BC) analysis for the implementation of IT in transportation agencies. BC analysis traditionally has been difficult for IT. Managers and politicians _ less patient and less willing to accept the “intangible” benefits of IT. Software Safety As software becomes a more integral part of transportation systems, software safety issues arise. We must ensure that the software does no harm if it should fail. We do not want the equivalent of the Thorac X-ray machine accidents, in which several patients died due to defective software, to occur in transportation. But safety _ not the same as security, although they _ interrelated; safety goes beyond security. Safety considers such issues as “What happens if someone breaches the security barrier? Can the system still be safe? ” Even without a security breach, software can fail because of a bug, hardware failure, or another similar internal problem. It _ important to ensure that if the system software does fail, there _ no resulting injury or loss of life. Some developers go even further, maintaining that it _ important to ensure that the software does not cause any highly undesirable situations—for example, all the traffic lights turning green simultaneously as a result of a failure in the traffic management system. On the other hand, it also could be argued that all lights turning red at once also _ unsafe—or at least highly undesirable. Software Systems With the good old days of “roll-your-own” software systems gone forever, how does an agency obtain new systems and components? How do you design and build systems from components? What new skills and roles does your information system (IS) staff need? How do you acquire, benchmark, deploy, operate, upgrade, and retire systems in this new environment? The last generation of systems managers witnessed the hardware “appliance.” What is the software equivalent? Standards and Guidelines What _ the specific standards and guidelines that IS leaders in the transportation world can rely on for practical application in a dramatically changing environment? The transportation community should support standards development—such as Standards on Software, Carnegie–Mellon’s Software Engineering Institute Capability Maturity Model, ISO9000-3, the Project Management Institute’s Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, and other documents providing standards and guidelines.
14.4 Прочитай, письменно переведи текст DATA SHARING AND INTEROPERABILITY: Management of Transportation Data. Management of transportation data from an IT point of view, or data storage and data delivery in a non-data-specific way should be considered. Exchange and Sharing of Transportation Data Sets. The exchange of ideas and experiences is important in the advancement of transportation facilities. Good ideas and experiences can be exchanged through conference presentations and journal publications. These good ideas and experiences come mostly from analyzing or studying real-world data. These data sets, however, are rarely available. At present, even if authors who publish their work would like to share their data, there is no well-established place to organize and disseminate them. Furthermore, data are expensive to collect. If we know that relevant data are available, we do not have to collect them again, or we only need to supplement the data that already exist. This would save both money and time. The transportation community should encourage the following activities related to exchanging and sharing transportation data sets: · Determine what types of data are useful in terms of planning, design, operation, safety, and maintenance of transportation facilities. Determine how to classify the data. · Determine the format and standard for publishing data sets. For instance, the data should be saved and published in standard formats. The data should then include a description of how they are collected, what and how to use them, where to get them, and so on. Since data are collected in the real world, we also might require each data set to specify at least one location reference suitable for GIS geocoding, making it possible find out what data a particular location has by clicking on a map. · Define standards for disseminating the data. Interoperability. Now that the “Holy Grail” of integrated systems has been abandoned, it looks like the next goal is interoperability. What is a good, working definition of interoperable? Is it practically achievable? How does interoperability differ from compatibility, interfaceability, and substitutability? What is the role of standards in achieving it? Which standards are we going to use? What is the difference between component-level interoperability and system-level interoperability? Where are the early examples of interoperability in transportation?
14.5 Прочитай, письменно переведи текст TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS и заполни пропуски: Intelligent Vehicles. Information Dissemination. Aging and Disabled Drivers. Collision Warning and Avoidance Systems. Vehicle and Highway Automation.
1. The transportation community needs to investigate how IT could provide assistance to the increasing population of elderly and disabled drivers. 2. How IT will affect the deployment of intelligent vehicles and how telematics will change the operations of transportation agencies and the behavior of motorists needs to be evaluated. 3. Where do we go from here? How do we start with partial automation and advance to full automation? 4. The transportation community needs to evaluate how well collision warning and avoidance systems and crash mitigation systems could work, what percentage of the annual 40, 000 accident deaths could be prevented by such systems, and whether such systems should be mandatory. 5. Public expectations about the transportation industry, particularly how the public interacts with government organizations, should be assessed. This is especially important as people become accustomed to the availability of a high degree of timely information in their daily lives. We also should consider how the timeliness of information applies to the following categories of people: · End users traveling along the transportation infrastructure (en route IT); · End users preparing to enter the transportation infrastructure (credentialing and trip planning); · Government staff employing gathered information to improve the infrastructure (operations, planning, enforcement, etc.); and · Governments communicating with each other.
14.6 Прочитай, письменно переведи текст BEYOND 2000 и перескажи: As we move into the 21st century, we need to identify the areas of transportation in which IT innovations might develop; we then can begin to solve problems and meet challenges proactively. By reviewing and assessing the state of the art in information systems and technologies, the transportation community might be able to predict directions that technology will take and to identify the skills that will be necessary to support the future expansion, integration, and productivity of transportation systems. We will see more advanced technologies with direct or indirect uses in transportation. It is important to provide trend forecasts for management, especially when the proposed changes require a long lead time and significant effort. One example is the need to rely increasingly on contracted work, which generates a need for effective contract management training and coaching for IS project managers. To meet the IT challenges in the new millennium, we should increase awareness in state and local agencies of formal techniques to increase the margin of safety of the systems they procure. In the future, it will be possible to have considerably more intelligence in the infrastructure (for example, “smart highways” procured by state and local transportation agencies) and in communications between vehicles and the infrastructure. In the new millennium, the transportation community should take a much more integrative and coordinating approach to IT applications for transportation, such as GIS, global positioning systems, and intelligent transportation systems. Finally, the transportation industry should strive to be a leader in IT. To do this, the transportation community must monitor developments in other sectors of the economy.
The Passive употребляется для выражения: Ø действия, которое было совершено неизвестным, неважным или ясным из контекста лицом: Mrs. Archer’s ruby ring was stolen from her house last night. Ø действия более важного, чем лицо, совершающее действие. в обзорах новостей, статьях, официальных записях, инструкций, рекламы: Two teenagers were seriously injured in a car accident last night. Ø более вежливого высказывания: My new blouse is ruined. Вместо: You’ve ruined my blouse. В Passive обычно не употребляются The Present Perfect Continuous, The Future Continuous, The Past Perfect Continuous и The Future Perfect Continuous. В разговорной речи часто заменяют to be на to get: Mary got run over by a car while she was crossing the street.
Для изменения предложения из active в passive:
Ø дополнение становится подлежащим Ø сказуемое остается в том же времени Ø перед дополнение в passive (бывшее подлежащее active) ставится by или оно опускается Ø если за сказуемым стоит дополнение предложение может быть изменено в passive: Peter feeds the cows. –> The cows are fed by Peter. Ø by + дополнение употребляется, чтобы сказать кто или что совершает действие. With + инструмент/ материал/ ингредиент: A kite was made by John. It was made with paper, paint & string. Ø если подлежащее в passive: people, one, someone, somebody, they, he, etc., дополнение обычно опускается: People eat a lot of junk food nowadays. -> A lot of junk food is eaten nowadays. Ø дополнения me, you, him, etc. в active становятся подлежащими I, you, he, etc. в passive: They rescued me. -> I was rescued. Ø с глаголами bring, tell, send, show, teach, promise, buy, throw, write, award, hand, sell, owe, grant, allow, feed, pass, post, read, take, offer, give, pay и lend можно сделать два разных предложения в passive: Jessica showed Rod some photos. -> Rod was shown some photos by Jessica.(этот вариант предпочтительнее)/Some photos were shown to Rod by Jessica. Ø если в active за сказуемым следует предлог, то в passive он сохраняется: Jane looks after the baby. -> The baby is looked after by Jane. Ø вопросы в passive строятся по схеме Who/What … by?: Who was the camera invented by? What was the explosion caused by? С глаголами think, believe, say, report, know, expect, consider, understand, etc. можно личные и безличные формы в passive:
Конструкция have something done используется, чтобы сказать, что кто-то что-то делает для нас: Sandra is having her car repaired at the moment. Ø Вопросы и отрицания образуются при помощи do/does/did: Do you have your hair cut every month? Did she have the house cleaned? Ø Have something done используется чтобы сказать, что произошло что-то неприятное: Mary had her purse stolen yesterday. Get можно употреблять вместо have в неформальном общении: We must get the fridge repaired soon. 14.A Переделай предложения в страдательный залог:
1. He should find the solution of the problem. 2. I object to her using my computer. 3. Does she train all the new staff? 4. We will have finished the project by next Friday. 5. What did they open the safe with? 6. You must inform the co-workers about the rules of the company. 7. She had verified everything by experiments. 8. Has Sabrina written a report for you? 9. Tolya were feeding the car. 10. She locked all the doors before she went on weekend.
14.B Переделай предложения, используя have something done: 1. Sasha’s car will be taken to the garage tomorrow. 2. Nina’s secret constituent was stolen last night. 3. Our grass is cut by the gardener. 4. Pasha’s jaw was broken in a boxing match. 5. The new lock will be fitted on Monday. 6. His passport has just been stolen. 7. Their office is decorated every year. 8. Our room were cleaned by us this morning. 9. Sveta’s wedding dress is going to be made next month. 10. My salary is deposited in my bank account every month.
15.1 Прочитай и письменно переведи текст:
The marketing of shipping companies activating in merchant shipping, is the science of Business to Business Marketing (B2B marketing), which deals with the satisfaction of a charterer’s – shipper’s needs for the carriage of goods by sea, with the main aim of profit for the enterprise. This satisfaction presupposes, on the one hand, correct diagnosis of the shipping market to better understand and forecast a client’s (charterer’s – shipper’s) transport needs and, on the other hand, appropriate organization, planning and control of the shipping enterprise’s means (Plomaritou, 2006a). The more the shipping enterprise tries to discover what its clients need, to adapt the chartering policy to their requirements, to offer appropriate transport services, to negotiate the freight as a function to what it offers, as well as to communicate effectively with the market it targets, the more the possibilities are to achieve the most appropriate, efficient and long-lasting commercial operation of its vessels (Plomaritou, 2006b). All shipping enterprises have limited capabilities concerning the means, the resources and the management abilities for their ships. This means that it is impossible to exploit all the chances of the shipping market with equal effectiveness. The matching of the shipping enterprise capabilities with the needs and the desires of its clients is fundamental for the provision of the desired transport services, the satisfaction and retention of charterers and thus the commercial success of the enterprise (Goulielmos, 2001). The shipping company must organize its resources in such a manner as to be able to apply the marketing process’ stages and to achieve a long-lasting and more effective commercial operation of its ships. The application of marketing presupposes correct diagnosis, planning, organization, implementation and control of the marketing effort.
15.2 Прочитай, переведи текст SHIPPING MARKETING AND CUSTOMER ORIENTATION и расположи абзацы в правильной последовательности:
A. Marketing is not only concerned with the development and implementation of successful programs and strategies. For marketing to be successful, there needs to be a marketing orientation throughout the company, which … B. Shipping marketing can be described by means of all the practical aspects within a marketing program such as shipping market … C. The inseparable nature of shipping services means that the importance of the roles played by the service provider (the shipping company) and the … D. If a true marketing orientation is to be achieved, all members of staff need to know the functions of marketing and understand what … E. When firms take a customer perspective, they recognize that customers are active partners in the marketing process and view them as operant resources; hence, they work together to co-create value. A customer orientation places the shipper at the centre of the company’s activities. Being close to the charterer is the focal point of … F. In accordance with the customer orientation, the activities of a shipping enterprise must be implemented within the framework of a well-studied philosophy of an effective, productive and responsible marketing. The shipping enterprise must understand the charterers’ buying behavior. A necessary precondition of an … G. The weakness of understanding the needs the various client groups have leads to the weakness of the correct marketing planning and to the failing of the provision of desired transport services at acceptable freight levels. The correct drawing up of the shipping enterprise’s strategy is achieved through planned rational company’s actions. The action plans must be applied correctly so that the proper transport service is provided to the appropriate charterer at the right …
1. … analysis and segmentation, strategic planning, promotion and transport service production. A marketing orientation goes beyond this. It is based around a philosophy which places the client first, and it recognizes that every action taken by the company ultimately affects the customer relationship. 2. … the marketing concept. All personnel, as well as the crew, need to be aware of the way in which they can contribute to customer satisfaction, even when they do not have personal direct contact, such as the employees of the accounting department. Positive feedback from shippers can be relayed to everyone in the shipping company through internal bulletins. Similarly, any quality problems or customer complaints should also be discussed at all levels to see if systems or processes within the shipping company can be improved. 3. … shipper is often far greater than in the marketing of physical goods. Every interaction between the shipping company and the charterers can affect the quality of the transportation service and the benefits provided. There are different types of interaction which go to make up the service encounter. In the shipping business, the main types of interaction are as follows: • the direct interaction between the service provider, such as a member of staff or crew of the shipping company, and the shipper, • the interaction between the charterer and the ship-owner’s broker, • the interaction between the ship-owner and the charterer’s broker, • the interaction between the charterer’s broker and the ship-owner’s broker, • the interaction between the shipper and service facilities, such as the formation of the bill of lading by electronic means (e.g. EDI - system), • the interaction between the charterer and other charterers. 4. … time and port with the appropriate vessel and at freight levels that satisfy not only the shipping company but also its client. 5. … fosters the marketing concept and demonstrates a marketing approach to all internal and external activities. The concept of customer orientation in business markets has attracted the attention of both academics and managers and it has been widely used in the marketing discipline. Customer orientation is the sufficient understanding of one’s target buyers to be able to create superior value for them continuously. The term customer oriented firms is frequently used to describe how knowledgeable the firm is about the client needs and how responsive the firm is to them in terms of the continuous value creation and delivery. Moreover, it has been argued that the essence of market orientation, as well as customer orientation as a dimension of the market orientation construct, is the successful management of a relationship between supplier and customer. Also, the literature has stated that strong business relationships must be developed with those customers that are able to assess the value created and delivered by the firm. However, despite the increasing literature being focused on customer orientation and business relationships, there is a lack of literature explaining the marketing orientation in the shipping business. 6. … effective shipping marketing is the understanding of the different needs the charterers – shippers have within the different segments of the shipping market. For instance, the decisions of charterers in the tanker market are more oriented to safety, the decisions of shippers in the liner market are more oriented towards quality and the decisions of charterers in the bulk carriers market are more oriented towards cost. The shipping company must understand the charterer’s behavior in every stage of the decision process, as well as the existing influences in the above process. Consequently, the enterprise must take into consideration the persons participating in the chartering process – e.g. chartering brokers - and the influence they exercise on the charterer’s decisions. The shipping company must comprehend the chartering policy of charterers and shippers in the tramp and liner market. 7. … marketing really means and how it can shape their approach to their own responsibilities. There are essentially two ways of looking at the functions and role of marketing. One way is to set down the tasks which are involved in the marketing process and the other way is to examine the aims of marketing. The tasks involved in shipping marketing include the following: • review of economic and business climate, • situation analysis of shipping company, • comparison of the shipping company with its competitors, • market segmentation, targeting and positioning, • design of the appropriate shipping marketing mix, • development of strategic marketing plans, • implementation of strategic marketing plans, • measurement of achieved performance and comparison with exemplary performance of marketing plans, • the aims of shipping marketing are as follows, • to understand the transportation needs of shippers, • to provide benefits and satisfactions to meet the above needs, • to ensure consistent quality of offered services, • to retain existing shippers, • to attract new shippers, • to achieve the shipping company’s objectives.
15.3 Прочитай, переведи текст CHARTERERS’ & SHIPPERS’ DECISION PROCESS и сопоставь названия и суть: To market sea transport services effectively, a shipping company needs to understand the thought processes used by the charterer and shipper during their decision process. The decision process of the customer is a sequence of thinking, evaluating and deciding. The decision process helps a shipping company to structure its thinking and to guide its marketing research regarding the charterer’s and shipper’s behavior. A customer’s behavior is usually depicted as a sequence of information processing. During the last 30 years, writers and researchers have attempted to categorize the stages of the decision process of a services buyer, which lead to the final patronage decision. The similarity of the stages suggests the conceptual framework of a charterer’s and shipper’s decision process. More specifically, the basic stages of a charterer’s and shipper’s decision process are the following:
15.4 Прочитай, переведи текст CHARTERERS’ & SHIPPERS’ BUYING BEHAVIOR и перескажи: Understanding the dynamics of organizational buying behavior is essential to all major strategic and tactical planning in business - to - business marketing. The psychographic analysis is the technique that investigates which are the interests, the desires and the needs of customers. Various models of organizational buyer behavior have been postulated in the last 30 years. The most important categories of the model are the task related, the non-task related, the complex and the multi-dimensional. Based on the above-mentioned models, it is concluded that the buying behavior of the charterer and shipper is complex because it passes through the decision process comprising of: the recognition of the need of cargo transportation, the seeking of information through the cargo orders, the evaluation of alternative vessel employments, the decision for negotiation, the chartering pre and post fixture behavior. Buying behavior of the charterer and shipper involves risk in the sense that any action taken by the charterer or shipper will produce consequences that he cannot anticipate with any certainty, and some of which are likely to be unpleasant. Risk is proposed to consist of two dimensions: • Consequence: the degree of importance and/or danger of the outcomes derived from any client’s decision. • Uncertainty: the subjective possibility of the occurrence of these outcomes. With respect to uncertainty, the shipper, for example, may have never chartered the vessel X and may have never cooperated with the shipping company which manages the vessel X. Moreover, even though theship-owner has performed the carriage of similar cargoes successfully in the past, the shipper is not guaranteed that this particular voyage will end with the same successful outcome. In addition, uncertainty is likely to increase if the shipper lacks sufficient knowledge before the execution of the charter, concerning the particulars of the vessel, the image of the shipping company, past loss and damage experience of the company, etc. The consequences of a poor decision regarding the chartering of a vessel could cause damages or loss of cargo. The charterer and shipper perceive three types of risk during the pre-fixture and post-fixture stages of a charter: financial, social/psychological and shipping risk. Financial risk assumes that financial loss could occur in the case of the vessel’s poor performance. Loss or damage in transit is an insurable risk, but raises many difficulties for the shipper, who may well be prepared to pay more for secure transportation of his/her product without risk of damage. Social/psychological risk relates to the idea that there might be a loss of the shipper’s social status associated mostly with the carriage of oil or dangerous goods by sea (e.g. the case of oil pollution). Shipping risk is the risk that the investment in the hull of a merchant ship, including a return on the capital employed, is not recovered during a period of ownership. Shipping risk can be taken by the shipper (industrial shipping) or by the ship-owner (shipping market risk). When risk is taken by the cargo owner, this leads to an “industrial shipping” business, in which ship-owners are subcontractors and cost minimizers. When “shipping risk” is left to the ship-owner, business becomes highly speculative. When shippers are confident about how much cargo they will need to transport in the future, or if they feel that transport is of too great strategic importance to be left to chance, they may decide to take the shipping risk themselves. Shipping operations may be carried out with an owned fleet or by pre-construction time charters with independent ship-owners, if this is found to be a more cost-effective solution. With the assurance of cargo, the owners purchase ships and try to make a living by keeping costs below the contract margins. This type of operation is often known as “industrial shipping”. Industrial shipping is a policy, not a requirement. The oil industry provides a good example of how policies can change with circumstances. In the 1950s and 1960s, it was the policy of the major oil companies to own enough tankers to cover between one-third and two-thirds of their requirements and to charter tankers long-term to cover most ofbalance. This left only 10 percent of their needs to be covered from the voyage charter market. After the oil crisis in 1973, the oil trade became more volatile and much of the oil transport passed to oil traders who had little incentive to plan for the future. As a result of these changes, oil shippers started to rely more heavily on the voyage market. The amount of oil cargo shipped in vessels hired on the freight market increased from 10-15 percent in the early 1970s to 50 percent by the late 1980s and the proportion of independent tanker owners trading as subcontractors (on time charter) fell from 80 percent to about 25 percent. Industrial shipping makes ship-owners subcontractors rather than risk takers. In this business, the challenge is to win the contract and deliver the service at a cost-level, which leaves the ship-owner with a profit. Although the ship-owner is freed from market risk, that does not remove all risk. Charterers strike a hard bargain and the owner is subject to inflation, exchange rates, ship’s mechanical performance and shipper’s ability to pay the hire. By taking into consideration that charterers and shippers do not like taking risks, then it seems obvious that they will try, whenever possible, to reduce risk during the negotiation stage and before fixture. One strategy is the brand-loyalty. Brand loyalty is based on the degree to which the shipper has obtained satisfaction in the past. If shippers have been satisfied in the past with the transport services, they have little incentive to risk trying a new shipping company. Having been satisfied in a high-risk charter, a charterer is less likely to experiment with a different charter. Maintaining a long-term relationship with the same shipping company helps to reduce the perceived risk associated with the charter. This is why it is common to observe charterers and shippers chartering vessels from the same shipping company over long periods of time. Another strategy is the collection of information concerning the vessel’s particulars, the ship-owner’s reputation for reliability, the company’s profile and the past loss/damage experience of the company. Considerable information is provided to the charterers by the TMSA (Tanker Management Self-Assessment Scheme) reports concerning the quality assessment of tanker vessels (OCIMF). Risk is likely to decrease if before the execution of the charter, the shipper has sufficient knowledge concerning the vessel and the shipping company. The above-mentioned strategies alleviate the risk contained within the charterers’/shippers’ buying behavior, but they cannot remove it completely. Considering some several perspectives on behavior as a way to understand what could motivate the buying behavior of the charterer and shipper, we come to the following conclusion, which should not be too dogmatic: • The first perspective on shipper behavior and motivation is the Hard Core Behavioral and Motivation Perspective, which is based on learning theories such as operant and classical conditioning. These theories could suggest that charterers and shippers must learn from their own experiences in order to avoid the types of risk. That means that the charterer and shipper must experience the whole procedure of buying rather than merely observing other charterers and shippers who experience the above-mentioned types of risk. • The second perspective is the Social Learning Perspective, which, in contrast to the Hard Core Behavioral and Motivation Perspective, allows for vicarious learning. This means that it allows learning obtained by watching others getting good or bad consequences for behavior. Following this perspective, the charterer and shipper observe and imitate models (other charterers and shippers), who are more likely to be imitated than others. The motivation of the charterer and shipper has the following properties: • Motives may be overt, hidden and multiple. • Motivations can be driven by both internal and external factors. The complex buying behavior of charterers/shippers is dependent largely upon the exogenous factors of the micro and macro environment of shipping marketing as well as upon the attractiveness of the shipping marketing mix of the shipping company. The exogenous factors constitute the non-controllable factors of the shipping company, while the tools of the shipping marketing mix constitute the controllable factors of the shipping company. The global and demanding character of the shipping industry is recognized since the shipping market receives many influences from economic, political, social and other developments on the international and national level. As a result, the shippers’ buying behavior and, in a wider sense, their chartering policy accepts many influences from exogenous factors, which are beyond the company’s control. Additionally, the buying behavior of shippers is shaped according to the shipping company’s marketing mix variables. Marketing mix is the sum of marketing tools used by the enterprise in order to achieve its objectives in the target-market. Shipping marketing mix operates as a customer motivation tool. The needs, wants, drives, and desires of an individual that lead him or her toward the purchase of services or ideas is called consumer motivation. Each of the shipping marketing mix variables is controllable by the shipping company. Figure 2 presents the elements of charterers’ and shippers’ decision process as well as the characteristics of their buying behavior. The tools of the marketing mix for a shipping enterprise, active either in the tramp, or liner shipping market are: product (tramp or liner service), price (freight or hire), process (negotiation procedure & execution of the charter), people (office personnel & ship’s crew), place (ports & geographical area of ship’s employment), promotion (advertising programs), physical evidence (ship’s characteristics & seaworthiness of the vessel) and paperless trade. When effectively combined, the marketing mix can offset the effects of the uncontrollable factors that exist in every shipping firm’s environment such as technological advances, new and existing competitors, governmental regulations, economic conditions and the effects of seasonality that are constantly changing the environment in which the shipping enterprise operates. Shipping companies that fail to alter their marketing strategies to reflect the environmental changes and to satisfy charterers’ transportation needs, often falter in the long run.
Сложное дополнение — это сочетание существительного или местоимения в объектном падеже (напр. me, him, us, them) с инфинитивом или причастием I. Существует в трех основных вариантах: 1. С инфинитивом без частицы to или с причастием I после глаголов восприятия: see I saw him drive the car. I saw them working in the lab. hear I didn’t hear you come into the room. I heard her playing the piano. watch We watched the plane land. We watched the children playing in the yard. notice Nobody noticed him go out. He didn’t notice that happen. feel She felt somebody touch her hand. They didn’t feel the train start. I saw him enter the house. - Я видел, как он вошел в дом. I saw him entering the house. - Я видел, как он входил в дом. В первом случае (вышеперечисленные глаголы с инфинитивом без частицы to) подчеркивается факт действия, во втором (эти же глаголы с причастием) процесс действия. 2. С инфинитивом с частицей to после глаголов: to believe верить, считать I believe her to be a very good teacher. to know знать I know him to be a good student. to want хотеть I want you to help me. to expect ожидать I expect you to come in time. to advise советовать I advise you to enter the institute. to consider считать English climate is considered to be mild. to order приказывать He is ordered not to be late. to allow разрешать They allow to use dictionaries at the exam. to find находить I find your story to be very interesting. would like хотеть, желать I like you to finish your work. 3. С инфинитивом без частицы to после глаголов: to let, to make Don’t let them play in the street. Don’t make me laugh. 15.A Раскрой скобки:
1. He made me (do) it all over again. 2. Her boss made her (learn) the instruction. 3. If you want us (make) the work quickly you should let us (start) at once. 4. Would you like me (read) now? 5. They won’t let us (leave) the lab till our work has been checked. 6. He wouldn’t let the stuff (smoke) in his cabinet. 7. Please let me (know) the results of your research as soon as possible. 8. He made us (wait) for two hours. 9. I let him (go) early as he had done his task. 10. I’d like him (enter) the university but I can’t make him (do) it. 11. I want her (learn) English. 12. I heard the door (open) and saw my college (come) into the room. 13. I heard her (search) for the resistor. 14. I saw him (go out) of the office. 15. The engineer advised us (use) laser-trimming. 16. Her boss doesn’t allow her (work) at the lab alone. 17. We expect our college (get) the first price at the next conference. 18. We don’t want you (tell) anything. 19. I saw them (open) the window. 20. That is too difficult for you to do, let me (help) you.
15.B Переведи на английский язык:
1. I know him to be a good writer. 2. Everybody believes her to be right. 3. I have never heard her play the piano. 4. The scientist expects his report to be published. 5. I felt somebody look at me. 6. Everybody considers him to be a clever man. 7. They want the installation to be dismantled. 8. She watched her son play football. 9. The girl heard somebody call her. 10. She saw her daughter fall and cry. 11. You can’t make me believe that all these stories are true. 12. 1 heard him mention her name. 13. I expect you to come. 14. I saw them doing experiments. 15. The teacher made me go to the library.
Субъектный инфинитивный оборот (сложное подлежащее) состоит из: 1. существительного в общем падеже или местоимения в именительном падеже 2. глагола (обычно в страдательном залоге) + инфинитив. Оборот переводится на русский язык придаточными предложениями. Не is known to be a good engineer. Известно, что он хороший инженер. Не is said to have graduated from the University. Говорят, что он закончил университет. The experiments were reported to be successful. Сообщили, что эксперименты были успешны. В субъектном инфинитивном обороте могут употребляться глаголы: to see видеть, to hear слышать, to say сказать, to expect ожидать, полагать, to think думать, полагать, считать, to report сообщать, to suppose предполагать, to believe полагать, to consider считать, полагать, to assume допускать, to know знать, которые могут стоять в любом времени в страдательном залоге. Неопределенно-личным предложениям русского языка в английском языке чаще всего соответствуют пассивные обороты, такие как, например: It is reported that... Сообщается, что... It was supposed that... Предполагали, что... Субъектный инфинитивный оборот употребляется также в сочетании с некоторыми глаголами, которые могут стоять в действительном залоге, а именно с глаголами: to prove, to appear, to seem казаться, to turn out оказаться, to happen случаться This metal turned out to be very brittle. Оказалось, что металл очень хрупкий. The weather appeared to have improved. Казалось, что погода улучшилась.
15.C Переведи предложения, обращая внимание на случаи употребления Complex Subject: 1. The report was said to be very interesting. 2. He seems to know everything. 3. He proved to be a very good specialist. 4. This University is considered to be the best. 5. The paper is said to have been invented in China. 6. This student is known to work hard. 7. The weather appears to be improving. 8. He is known to be a prominent public figure. 9. These two scientists happened to work on the same problem. 10. The foreign scientists are expected to come at the end of the month.
15.D Переведи предложения, обращая внимание на случаи употребления Complex Subject: 1. A material which breaks with little permanent deformation is said to be brittle. 2. Ordinary objects are not likely to move with a velocity approaching the velocity of light. 3. This device appears to be of some interest. 4. They reported the capacity of the new engine to have been increased. 5. Mechanical work is known to be defined as the product of two physical quantities, namely, force and distance. 6. The values measured proved to be equal. 7. The lack of data is certain to slow down the work. 8. The new engine proved to be quite satisfactory for variable load conditions. 9. This new device is likely to gain wide recognition. 10. Scientists found the amount of deformation to be connected with the chemical composition and physical structure of materials. 11. We expected him to be appointed director of a new automobile plant.
16.1 Прочитай, письменно переведи: The shipping company must understand the charterer’s and shipper’s behavior in every stage of his/her decision process, as well as the charterer’s and shipper’s chartering policy in the tramp and liner market correspondingly. According to a comparative study of charterers’ and shippers’ requirements in the bulk and liner market, it was concluded that the tanker market is safety oriented, the liner market is quality oriented and the bulk carriers market is cost oriented.
16.2 Прочитай, переведи текст THE SELECTION CRITERIA OF THE SHIPOWNER:
There are seven categories of criteria which play a decisive role in the selection process of the shipowner by charterer in the tanker market. The categories of the selection criteria of the shipowner are the following:
1. Compliance of the shipping company with the international regulations of safety management: • well designed and built tankers, • well maintained tankers, • training and competence of crew, • training and competence of employees. 2. Reputation and image of the ship-owner in the shipping market: • past loss and damage experience of the shipping company, • reputation of the ship-owner for reliability. 3. Low cost sea transport operations: • transportation solutions that reduce costs and maximize results. 4. Appropriate (unselfish) chartering negotiating process: • compliance with the chartering negotiation rules, • provision of accurate and reliable information regarding the ship, • cooperation and response to the charterer’s requirements. 5. Provision of high quality transport services: • trade and schedule flexibility, • appropriate voyage planning, • speedy voyage execution, • proper loading and discharging operations without stoppages, • reduction of turn-around time to the minimum, • safe transportation of cargo to its destination. 6. Maintenance of good relationships with charterer: • good crew-charterer relationships, • good company-charterer relationships. 7. System of informing the client – charterer: • updated information system of charterer, • informative nature of advertising programs.
16.3 Прочитай, письменно переведи текст THE CHARTERING POLICY IN THE TRAMP MARKET и расположи абзацы в правильной последовательности: A. With regard to the charterer’s requirement for compliance of the … B. The charterer requires from the ship-owner to allot the suitable … C. The ship-owner must display the appropriate … D. The ship-owner is also obliged to … 1. … maintain the ship in a good order and condition during the charter. The oil companies require previous inspection of the tankers they are about to charter in order to ascertain that they are suitable for covering their transportation needs. A large number of independent tanker ship-owners believe that it is necessary for a charterer to know, in every detail, what he/she is about to charter. However, worthy of note is the behavior of certain ship-owners who characterize the above charterers’ stand as excessive since an extensive inspection is carried out in the tanker areas by the register or by the flag state or by the shipping company. 2. … shipping company with international regulations of safety management, this concerns the application of international rules and standards recommended by international maritime organizations, state authorities and recognized registers, for avoiding marine accidents, marine pollution, vessel damages and loss of cargo. From the early 1990s, an increasing national and international concern over tanker safety and environmental aspects was observed, resulting in new rules and conditions for tanker owners, which affect the market and the marketing of tankers, especially older vessels. The above-mentioned rules refer to the construction and maintenance of ships, as well as to the training of crew and personnel. Today, the oil companies, with the identity of the charterer, are specially careful and sensitized in environmental matters. Consequently, a very small number of old age and old technology tankers participate in the world-wide oil trade. 3. … care and take the appropriate measures in order to: Render the ship seaworthy; Render the ship suitably manned. Inability of the master or crew owed to the lack of knowledge (or experience), or to the intention of a crew member not to use his/her knowledge, renders the ship unseaworthy; Render the ship appropriately equipped. The ship must possess all the necessary equipment, instruments and devices for safe sailing, loading, unloading and handling of the cargo; Render the ship appropriately supplied. The ship must possess all the necessary documents (International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate, IOPP), supplies, fuel and lubricants for the carrying voyage; Render the ship holds clean and safe for the transportation of the cargo. 4. … vessel for transporting the cargo with safety. The obligation of the ship-owner to grant a seaworthy ship concerns obligations for each part of the vessel, of its engine, of its supplies and even of its crew. The ship-owner is obliged to provide a ship built, equipped and manned in such a manner, so that it can carry the cargo with safety to its destination and can overcome those risks – ordinary perils of the sea – anticipated to meet during the chartering. The ship-owner’s duty to provide a seaworthy ship comprises a duty to have its loading and discharging tackle available for the purpose of loading and discharging.
16.4 Прочитай, переведи текст OIL COMPANIES и заполни пропуски:
1. transport cost became less 2. against a number of key performance 3. oil from the Middle East to Europe represented 4. operations; management of 5. new investments by private carriers, the 6. emphasis on self-assessment and continuous 7. relevant balance with the vessels’ 8. industry KPIs such as ‘lost time injury 9. trend is for these companies to sell off and cease 10. chartering negotiations, take seriously into 11. fewer and larger entities and a decrease of traders are 12. characterized by a small number of 13. appropriate voyage 14. standards and principles, as proposed by 15. usage, even in extremely 16. width, length, cargo handling equipment, fuel consumption, 17. same high quality of transport 18. and counter-offers of the parties are 19. quality transport services, this 20. not be able to fulfill his 21. the charterer with the result to
Oil companies constantly evaluate the shipping companies they work with, as well as the quality of the vessels they charter. The Tanker Management and Self Assessment (TMSA) provides tanker operators with a means of assessing their own safety management systems _ indicators (KPIs). TMSA lists 12 categories, or “elements” against which operators are encouraged to assess themselves on a scale of 1 to 4 (with 4 being the ‘best’ mark) and to use the results to improve their management and operational standards. These elements cover items such as management, leadership and accountability; recruitment and management of shore-based and ship-based personnel; cargo ballasting and mooring _ change; incident investigation and analysis; and emergency preparedness and contingency planning. OCIMF’s industry-standard Ship Inspection Report Program (SIRE) reporting system has been seen as a way of bolstering the ship inspection regime and now TMSA is being seen as a means of reinforcing the implementation of the International Safety Management (ISM) Code, with particular _ improvement. Although many owners would like to get to grips with TMSA – not least because they view it as a commercial requirement in the eyes of some charterers – they feel that there are obstacles to doing so. Some owners complain of the lack of a framework for self-assessment, while others feel that there is insufficient time to adopt some of the more rigorous ‘best practice’ standards. Further, some feel that established _ frequency’ should be incorporated into TMSA. The oil companies maintain the view that reliability, honesty and integrity of the ship-owner are more important than the most attractive terms of the charter party that may be offered to them. Thus, the oil companies, during the _ account the reputation of the shipping company at the freight market, marine insurance market, sale and purchase market, new building market, etc. The history of losses and damages of the shipping company affects the decision process of charterers in making a fixture. Concerning the requirement of the charterer for low cost sea transport operations, it is generally admitted that the tanker market is _ big chartering companies - the oil majors – that have the ability to control, to a large extent, the schedule of loading operations. The number of smaller private firms (often known as “traders”) and state organizations engaged in the chartering of tankers increased considerably during the 1980s. Nowadays, a concentration of _ observed. The comparatively small number of loading areas and the offshore loading terminals are also typical of the tanker market, although there has been a significant increase of loading places during the last decade. Throughout the years, it has been typical for the big oil companies to own a considerable fleet of tankers under their management, but now the _ operation as owners. Instead, tanker owners will build vessels to charterers’ specifications and place them on long-term charter or contract with the oil company in question. In a depressed market situation, these charterers may enter into longer engagements of two or three years’ duration. Since the position of oil companies is so strong in the market for as long as the vessels’ supply continues to be flexible and in _ demand, it follows that the only risk the oil companies face ensues from the possibility of the tankers’ supply to become inflexible against increasing tankers’ demand. For avoiding this possibility, a successful prognosis of their transportation needs is required on behalf of the oil companies so that with the appropriate encouragement for _ maintenance of balance between demand and supply is ensured. Consequently, the freight cost is always important, but the greater the proportion of freight in the overall cost equation, the more emphasis charterers are likely to place on it. For example, in the 1950s, the cost of transporting a barrel of _ 49 percent of the CIF cost. As a result, oil companies devoted great effort to finding ways to reduce the cost of transport. By the 1990s, the price of oil had increased and the cost of transport had fallen to just 2.5 percent of the CIF price, so the _ important. The charterers also want to ensure the appropriate chartering negotiation. The ensuring of prompt chartering negotiations presupposes the application of the proper negotiating rules. The negotiable parties are obligated to comply with the _ BIMCO. The charterers require from the ship-owner to provide true, precise and reliable information concerning the vessel. The ship’s description – name, discreet sign, date of building, nationality, deadweight and net capacity, speed, draught, _ etc. – is of a great importance to the degree it affects the charterer to sign the contract. All information must be exchanged in good faith. In addition, the charterers require from the ship-owner to comply with the time limits concerning the submission of offers and counter-offers. During negotiations, offers _ submitted within reasonable time limits. It is understood that aimless delays during chartering negotiations are not desirable. The ship-owner should not offer the same ship to more than one charterer at the same time because if all charterers accept the offers, then the ship-owner would _ /her obligations and make his/her vessel available concurrently. Sometimes, during the negotiation of a ship, the ship-owner uses phrases such as “subject open” or “subject free” or “subject unfixed”, which means that the ship is subject to a negotiation with more than one charterer at the same time. However, such a tactic is not desirable by _ display reluctance to follow it. Concerning the requirement of the charterer for provision of high _ includes the appropriate planning of the voyage, the speedy and correct loading and unloading process, as well as the reduction of “turn around” time to the minimum. The chartering companies desire the _ service independently of the type of trade, the type of vessel, the geographical area and the economic developments. The oil companies also desire to cooperate with ship-owners who offer trading flexibility, without commercial or geographical limitations concerning the vessel’s _ sensitized environmental regions. Charterers want to charter vessels universally accepted. Limitations included in charter parties due to political or economic reasons are not desirable by the charterers. In addition, the charterers seek _ planning.
16.5 Прочитай, письменно переведи и перескажи текст в 5-7 предложениях:
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